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In this study, the phytochemical content of Amaranthus lividus extract and its multi-biological activities were investigated. Total protein, phenol, flavonoid, saponin and condensed tannin contents were determined for phytochemical analysis. In addition, GC–MS and HPLC analyzes were carried out for the determination of the active components of the extract. In determining the multi-biological activities, radical scavenging, anti-mutagenic, anti-proliferative and anti-microbial activities of the extract were investigated. GC–MS analysis revealed that the leaf extract of A. lividus contains phytol and β-sitosterol as major compounds and the presence of gallic acid, caffeic acid, quercetin, vanillin and kaemferol compounds were determined with HPLC analysis. The radical scavenging effect of A. lividus extract was determined as 75.6% against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and 85.2% against superoxide. In anti-bacterial studies, it was determined that A.lividus extract formed different inhibition zones against all tested bacteria. The highest inhibition zone was 14.3 ± 0.7 mm against Bacillus subtilis . In addition, the anti-microbial activity of the extract was demonstrated by molecular docking studies of the binding of gallic acid and phytol to aquaporin and arginase enzyme of bacteria, and the mechanism of anti-microbial activity was explained. A. lividus extract, which provided a 68.59–33.13% reduction in the formation of chromosomal aberrations such as unequal distribution of chromatin, micronucleus formation, fragment, sticky chromosome, bridge and vagrant chromosome, exhibited a strong anti-mutagenic effect. A. lividus extract has a reducing effect on the number of dividing cells and exhibits an anti-proliferative effect of 25.7% compared to the control group. The antiproliferative mechanism of action was investigated by molecular docking and it was determined that the gallic acid and phytol in the extract decreased proliferation by interacting with telomerase. As a result, A.lividus extract consumed as food is a potential natural anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, anti-mutagenic and anti-proliferative source with its rich phytochemical content.

In this study, the toxic effects of aflatoxin B 2 (AFB 2 ) on Swiss albino mice and the protective effects of resveratrol were investigated. Physiological (body weight, liver and kidney weight), biochemical (aspartate aminotransferase-AST, alanine transaminase-ALT, blood urea nitrogen-BUN, creatinine, malondialdehyde-MDA and glutathione-GSH) and cytogenetic parameters (micronucleus-MN in buccal epithelium, erythrocyte and leukocyte cells and chromosomal aberrations-CAs) were used to determine the toxic effects. Additionally, scavenging effects of resveratrol against superoxide, hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radicals were also investigated. In experimental period, mice were divided into six groups and the groups were treated with tap water, 10 mg/kg b.w resveratrol, 20 mg/kg b.w resveratrol, 20 µg/kg b.w. AFB 2 , 10 mg/kg b.w resveratrol + 20 µg/kg b.w AFB 2 , 20 mg/kg b.w resveratrol + 20 µg/kg b.w AFB 2 , respectively. As a result, the scavenging effects of resveratrol increased with increasing dose and the superoxide, H 2 O 2 and DPPH radical scavenging activity of resveratrol were 74.9%, 79.1% and 49.2%, respectively. AFB 2 administration caused a significant decrease in physiological parameters, and these decreases regressed in AFB 2  + resveratrol treated groups. Serum ALT and AST activities, BUN and creatinine levels were higher in the AFB 2 treated group compared to the control group and serious abnormalities were found in MDA and GSH levels in the kidney and liver. In the group treated with AFB 2  + 20 mg/kg resveratrol, ALT, AST, BUN and creatinine levels decreased significantly and GSH levels increased compared to only-AFB 2 treated group. AFB 2 triggered MN formation in buccal epithelium, erythrocyte and leukocyte cells and CAs in bone marrow cells. The application of 20 mg/kg resveratrol together with AFB 2 was decreased the MN and CAs frequency. Resveratrol exhibited a recovery effect in the range of 40.9–80.5% against AFB 2 toxicity in all tested parameters. In this study, it was determined that AFB 2 caused serious changes in selected physiological, biochemical and cytogenetic parameters while resveratrol displayed a protective role against these toxic effects.

In this study, phytochemical fingerprint and biological activities of Punica granatum L. seed extract (Pugex) were investigated. The phytochemical constituents were determined by LC-MS /MS and GC-MS analyses. The biological activity of the extract was investigated by anti-microbial, anti-genotoxic, anti-proliferative, anti-cholinesterase and anti-diabetic activity. All biological activities experimentally demonstrated in vitro were also investigated by molecular docking. The drug-likeness properties of selected phytochemicals were evaluated using the Molinspiration tool. The highest amounts of 2-oxatricyclo[4.3.1.0(3,8)]decane, 2-heptenal, 2-propyl- and 1 H-indene-1-one, gallic acid and ellagic acid were detected as major constituents in LC-MS/MS and GC-MS. Pugex showed a broad spectrum of anti-microbial activity by forming inhibition zones against all tested bacteria, with anti-genotoxic activity ranging from 53.31% to 74.48% against various chromosomal aberrations and anti-proliferative activity by reducing cell proliferation by 15.6%. Pugex inhibited α-glucosidase activity between 30.2% and 61.3% and α-amylase activity between 27.4% and 56.7%. The anti-cholinesterase activity of the seeds, which showed AChE inhibition up to 67.8% and BChE inhibition up to 79.8%, was associated with the essential oils they contained. The biological activities of the seeds were also confirmed by in silico interactions, and possible mechanisms were predicted, and drug likeness data provide preliminary information on the availability of phytochemicals for drugs. Drug-likeness features of the major components—2-Oxatricyclo [4.3.1.0(3,8)]decane, ellagic acid, gallic acid, and pulegone—were investigated. The logP values of all phytochemicals were found to be below 5, indicating compliance with Lipinski’s rule of five and suggesting their potential to cross biological membranes. Furthermore, phytochemicals with a total polar surface area below 140 Å are expected to exhibit improved intestinal absorption. Based on these findings, the phenolic acid derivatives evaluated in this study are anticipated to be well absorbed through the intestinal tract.

This study aimed to evaluate the toxicity of carbaryl at environmentally relevant concentrations on the non-target organism Allium cepa L. and to investigate the potential protective effects of Cassia angustifolia Vahl. (Senna) leaf extract (Ca-ex) against this toxicity. Germination parameters, mitotic index (MI), micronucleus (MN), chromosomal aberrations (CAs), comet assays, and spectral shift analyses were employed to assess both toxic and protective effects. Oxidative stress parameters were also investigated. A plant-based bioassay was conducted using root tips and leaves of A. cepa . Exposure to 0.3 µg/L carbaryl resulted in a 41% reduction in germination, a 22% decrease in cell proliferation, and significant increases in DNA fragmentation, MN, CAs, and anatomical damage. Both the decrease in MI rates and the significant increase in MN frequency indicate the cytotoxic effect of carbaryl. In the groups in which Ca-ex was administered together with carbaryl, MI rates increased again and MN frequency decreased, and these findings indicate the protective effect of Ca-ex. Exposure to carbaryl resulted in a significant decrease in chlorophyll levels and a significant increase in malondialdehyde, proline, superoxide dismutase and catalase levels. Administration of Ca-ex in combination with carbaryl improved the oxidative stress parameter levels. The mitigating effect of the extract is likely associated with its phenolic content, and LC–MS/MS analysis identified quercetin, p-coumaric acid, and ferulic acid as major components. While the findings provide promising evidence that C. angustifolia extract can mitigate carbaryl-induced toxicity in A. cepa , it is important to highlight that this study primarily focused on the protective effects in a non-target plant model. Future investigations should aim to explore the compatibility of such extracts with pesticide formulations, their effects on target pests, and their regulatory and economic feasibility in agricultural systems.

This research provides a comprehensive understanding of the toxicity of omethoate, a widely used organophosphate pesticide, in a non-target test organism, Allium cepa L. In this study, the control group received distilled water, while the treatment groups were exposed to omethoate at concentrations of 2 mg/L, 3.1 mg/L and 5.7 mg/L for 72 h, respectively.At the end of the experimental period, physiological, cytogenetic, biochemical, and meristematic cell damage level analyses were carried out. Rooting ratio (%), root elongation, and weight gain in the omethoate-treated groups were notably reduced compared to the control. The degree of growth inhibition became more pronounced as the concentration of omethoate increased. Omethoate caused cytogenetic damage, considering the increased micronucleus, chromosomal aberrations, DNA damage, and decreased mitotic index levels compared to control group values. Chromosomal aberrations observed after omethoate exposure were ranked from most to least dense, such as sticky chromosome, vagrant chromosome, fragment, bridge, and unequal chromatin distribution. Omethoate treatment promoted a rise in both activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase and malondialdehyde levels, which are indicators of oxidative stress. Among the other biochemical parameters examined, proline level increased, and chlorophyll a and b levels decreased in omethoate-treated groups. The adverse effects on genotoxicity and biochemical parameters increased as the dose of omethoate increased. The disorders induced by omethoate pesticide in root tip meristem cells were epidermis cell damage, flattened nucleus, cortex cell damage, thickened cortex cell wall, and thickened conduction tissue. According to the findings of this study, omethoate is a chemical that causes multifaceted and dose-dependent toxicity in A . cepa .

Aflatoxin M 2 (AFM 2 ) is a type of mycotoxin detected in milk or dairy products from animals consuming contaminated feed. In this study, the toxicity mechanism of AFM 2 and the protective effects of quercetin were investigated in albino mice. For this purpose, the mice were divided into 6 groups and the groups were fed with quercetin and AFM 2 . The toxic effects of AFM 2 and the protective properties of quercetin were investigated using physiological, biochemical and cytogenetic parameters. The genotoxic mechanism of AFM 2 and the protective role of quercetin were investigated by molecular docking, which is an in silico model. As a result, 16 mg/kg b.w AFM 2 administration caused serious changes in body weight, organ index, kidney and liver weight, and deterioration of antioxidant/oxidant balance in liver and kidney organs. The decrease in glutathione levels along with an increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in the liver and kidney after AFM 2 administration indicates that oxidative stress is induced. The increases in alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartat transaminase (AST) levels, which are indicators of liver damage, and the increases in serum levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine, which are indicators of kidney damage, confirm the damage in both organs. AFM 2 also caused genotoxicity by inducing micronucleus (MN) and chromosomal abnormalities (CAs) in bone marrow tissue. It has been determined that AFM 2 , which exhibits genotoxicity as a result of its clastogenic and aneugenic effects, causes CAs by interacting with DNA. Quercetin provided significant protection by improving liver and kidney tissues, partial normalization in serum parameter levels, and severe reductions in MN and CAs. The highest protection was determined as 74.1% against dicentric chromosome formations in 50 mg/kg b.w quercetin application. The interaction of quercetin with xanthine oxidase and nitric oxide synthase enzymes was determined in silico with an inhibition constant in the range of 283.71–476.17 nM. These interactions cause changes in the activity of enzymes, reducing the oxidative load in the cell, and in this way, quercetin provides protection. All toxic effects induced by AFM 2 were decreased with quercetin administration dose-dependently, and this protective effect was associated with quercetin's reduction of oxidative load by inhibiting the free radical-producing enzyme. All toxic effects caused by AFM 2 were decreased with quercetin administration in a dose-dependent manner, and this protective effect was associated with quercetin's reduction of oxidative load by inhibiting the enzyme that produces free radicals.

In this study the comprehensive toxic effects of the fungicide mancozeb on Allium cepa L., a widely used non-target model organism, and simultaneously explored the protective potential of grape seed extract (GSE) were studied. A broad set of biological responses was assessed, encompassing physiological parameters (germination rate, root elongation, biomass accumulation), cytogenetic markers [mitotic index (MI), Micronucleus (MN) frequency, chromosomal aberrations(CAs)], biochemical indicators [malondialdehyde (MDA), proline, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and chlorophyll levels], as well as anatomical changes in root meristematic tissues. Additionally, Comet assay was applied to detect DNA fragmentation. The experimental design comprised six treatment groups: a negative control irrigated with tap water, two groups administered GSE at concentrations of 465 mg/L and 930 mg/L, a group exposed solely to mancozeb (150 mg/L), and two groups co-treated with mancozeb and each GSE concentration. After the exposure period, root and leaf samples were harvested for comprehensive analyses. The control group exhibited optimal physiological growth and minimal cytogenetic and biochemical stress indicators. Mancozeb treatment, in contrast, significantly elevated the frequency of MN and CAs, increased lipid peroxidation and proline accumulation, and enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD and CAT), alongside DNA damage and marked anatomical disruptions in meristematic cells. However, the co-application of GSE mitigated these adverse effects across all measured endpoints, with the higher GSE concentration demonstrating superior efficacy. Cell proliferation, which mancozeb application reduced by 36.3% compared to the control, improved by 17.4% in the mancozeb + 930 mg/L GSE applied group. The protective effects of GSE were attributed to its rich phenolic composition, including compounds such as quercetin, resveratrol, and gallic acid, which likely contributed to its antioxidant and cytoprotective properties. In conclusion, mancozeb induced pronounced toxicity in A. cepa at the cellular, biochemical, and anatomical levels, while GSE supplementation effectively ameliorated these toxic impacts. These findings highlight the dual necessity of regulating pesticide application to prevent non-target organism harm and considering natural phytochemical agents like GSE as potential bioprotectants against agrochemical-induced stress.

This study aimed to investigate the dose-dependent protective effects of Capsella bursa-pastoris extract (CBPE) against the phytotoxic and genotoxic impacts of the insect growth regulator Triflumuron (TFM), using the Allium cepa assay. A comprehensive evaluation was performed by analyzing physio-morphological (germination rate, root elongation, biomass gain, chlorophyll a and b levels), cytogenetic (mitotic index, micronucleus formation, chromosomal abnormalities), biochemical (superoxide dismutase, catalase, malondialdehyde, and proline levels), and molecular endpoints. The phytochemical profile of C. bursa-pastoris was characterized through LC-MS/MS analysis to determine the bioactive phenolic constituents. Allium bulbs were exposed to 20 µg/L TFM and co-treated with two concentrations of CBPE (45 and 90 µg/mL). The results demonstrated that TFM exposure significantly inhibited germination and root growth, reduced mitotic activity (by 6.57%), and induced notable oxidative and genotoxic stress. However, CBPE co-treatment led to considerable recovery in all measured parameters, with the mitotic index increasing to 7.05%–7.55%. TFM exposure markedly increased micronucleus frequency, whereas co-treatment with CBPE led to a dose-dependent reduction in MN frequency, ranging from 15.88% to 35.7%. CBPE demonstrated a strong protective effect against TFM-induced growth suppression, genotoxicity, oxidative stress, and structural deterioration in meristem cells in A. cepa . This protective property is associated with the phenolic compounds contained in CBPE. The most abundant phenolic compound in the extract was p-coumaric acid. The findings provide compelling evidence that C. bursa-pastoris extract mitigates TFM-induced cellular and biochemical disruptions by modulating oxidative stress and preserving genomic integrity. This is the first comprehensive demonstration of plant-based mitigation of TFM phytotoxicity, supporting sustainable remediation strategies.

In this study, the toxicological effects of elevated concentrations of iron (FeSO 4 ), an essential trace element, were systematically investigated in Allium cepa L. A comprehensive set of biomarkers were employed, encompassing cytogenetic parameters (mitotic index, micronucleus frequency, chromosomal aberrations), physiological indicators (germination rate, root length, biomass accumulation), biochemical markers (malondialdehyde, proline content, chlorophyll concentration, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities), and anatomical assessments of root meristem cell integrity. Additionally, the Comet assay was utilized to quantify DNA damage. Four experimental groups were established: one control group and three treatment groups, each exposed to FeSO 4 concentrations of 50, 100, and 200 mg/L, respectively. At the conclusion of the experimental period, root tips and leaf tissues were collected and processed using standardized protocols for subsequent analyses. The results demonstrated that the control group exhibited superior physiological performance, with the highest values recorded for germination, root elongation, MI percentage and chlorophyll content. Conversely, FeSO 4 treatments induced a concentration-dependent decline in these parameters, accompanied by a significant increase in MN frequency, chromosomal aberrations, MDA and proline levels, and SOD and CAT enzyme activities. The most pronounced effects were observed at 200 mg/L FeSO 4, where the MI was reduced by 36% and the DNA tail percentage—a marker of DNA fragmentation—elevated by 57.3% compared to the control. Additionally, FeSO 4 exposure induced dose-dependent anatomical damage in A. cepa root meristem cells, particularly causing epidermis and cortex cell damage, nucleus flattening, and conduction tissue thickening, likely due to oxidative stress and mechanical pressure. These findings reveal that excessive FeSO 4 exposure triggers severe genotoxic, biochemical, and anatomical disruptions in Allium cepa , driven by oxidative stress and cellular damage. This underscores the potential ecological risks of iron pollution in terrestrial and aquatic environments.

Trifloxystrobin (TFS) is a strobilurin-type fungicide that should be investigated due to its risks to non-targeted organisms. The goal of this study was to assess the susceptibility of Allium cepa L. to TFS in a multi-pronged approach. For 72 h, 0.2 g/L, 0.4 g/L and 0.8 g/L doses of TFS were administered to A. cepa bulbs and the control group was treated with tap water. The toxic effects of TFS were tested, considering physiological, cytogenetic, biochemical and anatomical analyses. TFS delayed growth by reducing the rooting ratio, root elongation and weight increase. Following TFS treatments, mitotic index (MI) scores decreased, while the formation of micronucleus (MN) and chromosomal aberrations (CAs) ascended. CAs types induced by TFS were listed according to their frequency as fragment, vagrant chromosome, sticky chromosome, uneven distribution of chromatin, bridge, nucleus with vacuoles, reverse polarization and irregular mitosis. TFS provoked an increment in superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) enzyme activities as well as an accumulation of malondialdehyde (MDA). Meristematic cells of A. cepa roots treated with TFS had various anatomical damages, including damaged epidermis, flattened cell nucleus, damaged cortex and thickness in the cortex cell wall. All damages arising from TFS treatments exhibited dose-dependency. The findings of the present study revealed the serious toxicity of TFS in a non-targeted plant. It should not be neglected to evaluate the potential hazards of TFS with different toxicity tests.