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Background Aging is associated with a progressive decline in skeletal muscle mass and strength as well as an increase in adiposity. These changes may have devastating impact on the quality of life of older adults. Mitochondrial dysfunctions have been implicated in aging‐related and obesity‐related deterioration of muscle function. Impairments in mitochondrial quality control processes (biogenesis, fusion, fission, and mitophagy) may underlie this accumulation of mitochondrial dysfunction. High‐intensity interval training (HIIT) was shown to improve muscle and mitochondrial function in healthy young and old adults and to improve body composition in obese older adults. Recent studies also positioned citrulline (CIT) supplementation as a promising intervention to counter obesity‐related and aging‐related muscle dysfunction. In the present study, our objectives were to assess whether HIIT, alone or with CIT, improves muscle function, functional capacities, adipose tissue gene expression, and mitochondrial quality control processes in obese older adults. Methods Eighty‐one‐old and obese participants underwent a 12 week HIIT with or without CIT on an elliptical trainer [HIIT‐CIT: 20 men/25 women, 67.2 ± 5.0 years; HIIT‐placebo (PLA): 18 men/18 women, 68.1 ± 4.1 years]. Handgrip and quadriceps strength, lower limb muscle power, body composition, waist circumference, and functional capacities were assessed pre and post intervention. Vastus lateralis muscle biopsies were performed in a subset of participants to quantify markers of mitochondrial content (TOM20 and OXPHOS subunits), biogenesis (TFAM), fusion (MFN1&2, OPA1), fission (DRP1), and mitophagy (Parkin). Subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue biopsies were also performed to assess the expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism. Results HIIT‐PLA and HIIT‐CIT displayed improvements in functional capacities (P < 0.05), total (mean ± SD: HIIT‐PLA: +1.27 ± 3.19%, HIIT‐CIT: +1.05 ± 2.91%, P < 0.05) and leg lean mass (HIIT‐PLA: +1.62 ± 3.85%, HIIT‐CIT: +1.28 ± 4.82%, P < 0.05), waist circumference (HIIT‐PLA: −2.2 ± 2.9 cm, HIIT‐CIT: −2.6 ± 2.5 cm, P < 0.05), and muscle power (HIIT‐PLA: +15.81 ± 18.02%, HIIT‐CIT: +14.62 ± 20.02%, P < 0.05). Only HIIT‐CIT decreased fat mass (−1.04 ± 2.42%, P < 0.05) and increased handgrip and quadriceps strength (+4.28 ± 9.36% and +10.32 ± 14.38%, respectively, P < 0.05). Both groups increased markers of muscle mitochondrial content, mitochondrial fusion, and mitophagy (P < 0.05). Only HIIT‐CIT decreased the expression of the lipid droplet‐associated protein CIDEA (P < 0.001). Conclusions High‐intensity interval training is effective in improving functional capacities, lean mass, muscle power, and waist circumference in obese older adults. HIIT also increases markers of mitochondrial biogenesis, mitochondrial fusion, and mitophagy. Importantly, adding CIT to HIIT results in a greater increase in muscle strength and a significant decrease in fat mass. The present study therefore positions HIIT combined with CIT as an effective intervention to improve the health status of obese older adults.

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive changes in both motor and non-motor symptoms. Boxing exercise can improve PD symptoms. This review aimed to determine the effects of boxing exercise on lower extremity strength, balance, mobility, gait, depression, quality of life, disease severity, exercise safety, and adherence in patients with PD. A systematic review. Articles were selected if they included participants diagnosed with PD and used boxing exercise as the main intervention. Systematic review study based on PRISMA criteria. Searches were implemented in PubMed, EMBASE, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library until February 2024. We selected studies reporting on the pre-post assessment of a boxing intervention with lower extremity strength, balance, mobility, gait, depression, quality of life, disease severity, exercise safety, and adherence in patients with PD. Two independent reviewers conducted study selection, data extraction, and quality assessment. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database and ROBINS-I 2.0 criteria evaluated the literature's quality. Out of 4,301 records, 13 studies were included, involving 402 PD patients aged 53-89, with 72.4% being male. Interventions lasted 6-96 weeks, primarily in community settings and gymnasiums. Moderate-quality evidence suggested boxing exercises is feasible and effective for enhancing lower extremity strength, balance, mobility, gait, depression, quality of life, disease severity, exercise safety and adherence in PD patients. Boxing exercise can effectively improve both motor and non-motor symptoms in PD patients, with safety and high adherence. This review systematically summarizes the emerging evidence on the application of boxing exercise in the rehabilitation of patients with PD. Future research should include more homogenous PD patient populations and conducting randomized controlled trials.

Physical activity can be effective in preventing some of the adverse effects of aging on health. High-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) are beneficial interventions for the quality of life of obese older individuals. The understanding of all possible metabolic mechanisms underlying these beneficial changes has not yet been established. The aim of this study was to analyze changes in the serum metabolome after 12 weeks of HIIT and MICT in obese older adults. Thirty-eight participants performed either HIIT (n = 26) or MICT (n = 12) three times per week for 12 weeks. Serum metabolites as well as clinical and biological parameters were assessed before and after the 12-week intervention. Among the 364 metabolites and ratio of metabolites identified, 51 metabolites changed significantly following the 12-week intervention. Out of them, 21 significantly changed following HIIT intervention and 18 significantly changed following MICT. Associations with clinical and biological adaptations revealed that changes in acyl-alkyl-phosphatidylcholine (PCae) (22:1) correlated positively with changes in handgrip strength in the HIIT group (r = 0.52, p < 0.01). A negative correlation was also observed between 2-oxoglutaric acid and HOMA-IR (r = −0.44, p < 0.01) when considering both groups together (HIIT and MICT). This metabolite also correlated positively with quantitative insulin-sensitivity check index (QUICKI) in both groups together (r = 0.46, p < 0.01) and the HIIT group (r = 0.51, p < 0.01). Additionally, in the MICT group, fumaric acid was positively correlated with triglyceride levels (r = 0.73, p < 0.01) and acetylcarnitine correlated positively with low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (r = 0.81, p < 0.01). These four metabolites might represent potential metabolites of interest concerning muscle strength, glycemic parameters, as well as lipid profile parameters, and hence, for a potential healthy aging. Future studies are needed to confirm the association between these metabolites and a healthy aging.

This study aimed to compare the effects of 12 weeks of functional strength training combined with aerobic training (TG) and traditional resistance training combined with aerobic training (CG) on the body composition, physical fitness, and movement quality of obese adolescents. Forty participants were randomly assigned to either the TG group (n = 20) or the CG group (n = 20). Each group underwent training five times per week, lasting 120 min each time, over a total period of 12 weeks. All participants followed a strict dietary program. Anthropometric parameters, body composition, physical fitness, and movement quality were evaluated at baseline and after intervention. A two-way repeated measures ANOVA observed a significant interaction between time and group for body mass (p = 0.043), body fat percentage (p = 0.045), body mass index (p = 0.025), neck circumference (p = 0.01), chest circumference (p = 0.027), left-hand grip strength (p = 0.043), right-hand grip strength (p = 0.048), standing broad jump (p = 0.044), and total Functional Movement Screen score (p = 0.003), and the improvement was greater for TG in comparison to CG. TG was found to be more effective than CG in enhancing body composition, physical fitness, and movement quality in obese adolescents.

Sarcopenia and obesity are considered a double health burden. Therefore, the implementation of effective strategies is needed to improve the quality of life of older obese individuals. The aim of this study was to compare the impact of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT) on functional capacities, muscle function, body composition and blood biomarkers in obese older adults. Adipose tissue gene expression and markers of muscle mitochondrial content and quality control involved in exercise adaptations were also investigated. Sixty-eight participants performed either HIIT (n = 34) on an elliptical trainer or MICT (n = 34) on a treadmill, three times per week for 12 weeks. HIIT produced significantly higher benefits on some physical parameters (six-minute walking test (HIIT: +12.4% vs. MICT: +5.2%); step test (HIIT: +17.02% vs. MICT: +5.9%); ten-repetition chair test (HIIT: −17.04% vs. MICT: −4.7%)). Although both HIIT and MICT led to an improvement in lower limb power (HIIT: +25.2% vs. MICT: +20.4%), only MICT led to higher improvement in lower limb muscle strength (HIIT: +4.3% vs. MICT: +23.2%). HIIT was more beneficial for increasing total lean body mass (HIIT: +1.58% vs. MICT: −0.81%), while MICT was more effective for decreasing relative gynoid fat mass (HIIT: −1.09% vs. MICT: −4.20%). Regarding adipose tissue gene expression, a significant change was observed for cell death-inducing DFFA (DNA fragmentation factor-alpha)-like effector A (CIDEA) in the HIIT group (A.U; HIIT at T0: 32.10 ± 39.37 vs. HIIT at T12: 48.2 ± 59.2). Mitochondrial transcription factor A (TFAM) content, a marker of mitochondrial biogenesis, increased significantly following HIIT (+36.2%) and MICT (+57.2%). A significant increase was observed in the HIIT group for Translocase of Outer Membrane 20 (TOM20; +54.1%; marker of mitochondrial content), Mitofusin-2 (MFN2; +71.6%; marker of mitochondrial fusion) and Parkin RBR E3 Ubiquitin Protein Ligase (PARKIN; +42.3%; marker of mitophagy). Overall, our results indicate that even though MICT (walking on treadmill) and HIIT (on an elliptical) are effective intervention strategies in obese older adults, HIIT appears to have slightly more beneficial effects. More specifically, HIIT led to higher improvements than MICT on functional capacities, lean mass and skeletal muscle markers of mitochondrial content, fusion, and mitophagy. Thus, MICT but also HIIT (time-efficient training) could be recommended as exercise modalities for obese older adults to maintain or improve mobility, health and quality of life.

An acute bout of aerobic exercise (AAE) performed before practicing a motor task can enhance skill acquisition and motor learning. To date, research on the effects of AAE on motor learning has focused exclusively on concentric cycling, leaving the impact of eccentric cycling unexplored. Unlike concentric cycling, eccentric cycling involves muscle lengthening while resisting the reverse movement of the pedals and is characterized by greater force production with lower cardiovascular and metabolic cost. Regarding neuroplasticity changes, eccentric contractions induced a prolonged decrease in intracortical inhibition compared to concentric contractions. Eccentric cycling AAE also increases activation in cognitive-related regions. Given the involvement of these regions and motor cortex excitability in motor learning, we hypothesized that eccentric cycling AAE would enhance motor learning to a greater extent than concentric AAE. A total of 60 young healthy individuals were allocated to one of three groups that performed 20 min of: i) eccentric cycling; ii) concentric cycling; or iii) seated rest. Both cycling AAE conditions were performed at a power equivalent to 70% peak heart rate (i.e., moderate intensity). A continuous tracking task was used to assess motor skill acquisition (immediately after the intervention) and motor learning (48 h retention test). For both acquisition and retention, the eccentric group outperformed both the concentric and rest groups, while the concentric group also showed a better performance compared to the rest group at retention. Thus, we demonstrated that eccentric cycling AAE enhances motor learning to a greater extent than concentric cycling AAE, while also confirming previous work that showed enhanced motor learning following concentric cycling AAE compared to rest. Our findings suggest that eccentric cycling AAE may have important implications for exercise protocols prescribed in sports-related and clinical contexts. Eccentric cycling enhanced motor learning to a greater extent than concentric cycling Eccentric and concentric cycling enhanced motor learning more than rest Enhanced skill acquisition occurred after eccentric cycling, along with lower heart rate response and perceived effort. Eccentric cycling may have important implications in sports-related and clinical contexts

Physical exercise can enhance motor learning by inducing neurophysiological changes that facilitate this process. This preregistered scoping review aimed to map current knowledge on the effects of physical exercise on motor learning. Experimental studies and review articles examining any form of physical exercise in healthy or clinical populations were included, with outcomes assessing motor skill acquisition and/or retention. A systematic search across eight databases (e.g., MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsychINFO) identified 66 sources, including 62 experimental studies and 4 reviews. Two researchers independently reviewed articles and extracted data using a pretested data extraction table; disagreements at the study selection or data extraction stages were resolved through discussion with a third researcher. Most studies involved healthy populations (83%), with clinical populations underrepresented (17%). Aerobic exercise was most commonly investigated, particularly lower-limb cycling (73%), while resistance exercise was rarely examined (0.6%). Exercise intensity was predominantly high, although 6% of studies reported intensity not reflecting the prescribed method. Motor learning outcomes varied: 55% assessed both skill acquisition and retention, while 45% relied on retention tests alone at short-term or delayed time points, or both. Infrequent use of long-term retention tests limits understanding of lasting effects. Overall, this review highlights gaps in the literature, including the underrepresentation of clinical populations, inconsistent reporting of exercise intensity, scarce research on resistance exercise, and limited assessment of long-term retention, which may affect interpretation of exercise impact on motor learning.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.Footnotes* Draft version #2, 2026/01/22, submitted for peer review. Modifications from the previous version are in blue.Funder Information DeclaredFonds de Recherche du Québec - Nature et Technologies, https://ror.org/00b9f9778Fonds de Recherche du Québec - Santé, https://ror.org/02eqrsj93

The literature on the effect of fatigue on motor learning is limited and marked by inconsistent findings. This scoping review aimed to explore the available knowledge on the effects of fatigue induced by physical and cognitive exertion on motor learning, and to compile and understand how it is studied. A comprehensive search strategy using relevant index terms and keywords was conducted across MEDLINE, EMBASE, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, PsycINFO, CINAHL, ERIC, and Dissertations & Theses Global. Twenty-five studies met the inclusion criteria. The findings revealed considerable inconsistencies in how fatigue and motor learning were defined and measured. None of the studies examined the effect of fatigue induced by combined physical and cognitive exertion, and only 7 studies investigated fatigue induced by cognitive exertion. Acuity tasks were the most frequently used to assess motor learning, employed in 14 studies. Notably, all participants were between 16.5 and 31 years of age, and reporting of key demographic and physiological characteristics such as sex, gender, physical activity level, and body mass index was inconsistent or absent. This review highlights the need for comprehensive definitions of both fatigue and motor learning to improve consistency and reproducibility across studies. Given the limited research on the effects of fatigue induced by cognitive and combined physical and cognitive exertion, future studies should prioritize using these experimental manipulations. Also, future studies should diversify the motor learning tasks used in research to allow both direct and conceptual replication. Additionally, broader age ranges and comprehensive participant profiling should be prioritized.

Acute aerobic exercise (AAE) can modulate primary motor cortex (M1) excitability. To date, studies evaluating the effects of AAE on M1 excitability have focused almost exclusively on concentric cycling. Interestingly, eccentric cycling increases frontal-parietal brain activation more than concentric cycling. Critically, we recently found eccentric AAE enhances motor learning more than concentric AAE. Yet, the M1 excitability mechanisms underlying these effects remain unknown. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of eccentric cycling AAE on M1 excitability using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Thirty adults performed three 20 min-conditions: i) eccentric cycling AAE, ii) concentric cycling AAE, and iii) rest. Cycling AAE was carried out at a workload corresponding to 70% of peak heart rate (%HRpeak) measured during concentric incremental cycling exercise. TMS assessments were conducted before (Pre), immediately (Post0) and 20 minutes after (Post20) AAE/rest to evaluate changes in corticospinal excitability (CSE) and short interval-intracortical inhibition (SICI). We found CSE increased and SICI decreased at Post20 following eccentric and concentric cycling AAE compared to rest. Also, %HRpeak, muscle pain and perceived effort were lower during eccentric cycling AAE compared to concentric cycling AAE. Our results showed that eccentric cycling impacted M1 excitability change to a comparable degree as concentric cycling, while requiring less cardiovascular response, eliciting less muscle pain and lower perceived effort. Taken together, our results suggest that eccentric cycling AAE may be a valuable intervention to modulate M1 excitability for populations with limited cardiovascular capacity and have potential implications in clinical and sports-related contexts. This study demonstrates that both eccentric and concentric cycling exercise enhance corticospinal excitability and reduce short-interval intracortical inhibition. Additionally, eccentric cycling elicited significantly lower cardiovascular and perceptual responses compared to concentric cycling. These findings suggest that eccentric cycling may be a useful intervention for individuals with limited exercise capacity, such as clinical or aging populations.

Acute aerobic exercise (AEX) can enhance motor learning and promote neuroplasticity. However, the effect of AEX intensity on primary motor cortex (M1) excitability has not been systematically examined. Hence, the dose-response relationship between AEX intensity and M1 excitability modulation remains unclear. This study investigated the impact of AEX intensity on distinct M1 circuits using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Thirty right-handed adults underwent four experimental sessions: rest (control), light (LIIT), moderate (MIIT), and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) AEX. AEX intensity was prescribed with the heart rate reserve (HRR) method, and the interval cycling sessions consisted of alternating between 3 min at the target intensity (LIIT: 35% HRR; MIIT: 55% HRR; HIIT: 80% HRR) and 2 min of active recovery (25% HRR) for 20 min total. We performed TMS measures before (Pre), immediately post (Post0), and 20 min post (Post20) AEX/rest to assess modulation of corticospinal excitability and GABAergic inhibition as measured by short interval-intracortical inhibition (SICI). This study found that: (1) HIIT and MIIT increased corticospinal excitability, with HIIT eliciting a sustained increase; and (2) all AEX intensities (LIIT, MIIT and HIIT) decreased SICI, with the greatest sustained reduction following MIIT. Also, there was a greater reduction in GABAergic inhibition when measured with anterior-posterior than posterior-anterior TMS current following MIIT. Collectively, our results demonstrate the impact of HIIT and MIIT to enhance corticospinal excitability and reduce GABAergic inhibition in M1. This study provides evidence for a dose-response effect of AEX intensity on the modulation of distinct motor cortical circuits.Competing Interest StatementThe authors have declared no competing interest.