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The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), as the responsible authority for pesticide registration in Europe, published guidance documents describing the required studies for different groups of aquatic and terrestrial organisms and their implementation in risk calculations (EFSA, 2010, 2013a). Furthermore, EFSA also recently published scientific opinions on in-soil organisms, non-target arthropods, amphibians, and reptiles as well as non-target terrestrial plants calling for improvement of ERA for the respective groups (EFSA, 2014, 2015, 2017, 2018). [...]the application of the herbicide leads to a reduction of “weeds” (as intended in the field) and of “non-target plants” (the same plant species growing outside the field), therefore reducing the amount of food for pollinators and herbivorous insects. The agricultural cropping area that receives pesticide inputs in Europe represents 22% of the total land area, reaching more than 30% for example in Germany and France (for 2015, Eurostat, 2019). [...]in countries with a high proportion of cropped area almost a third of the terrestrial land surface is not evaluated regarding negative effects of pesticides on its biodiversity.

Glyphosate (GLY), the most widely used herbicide in the world, is frequently detected in various environmental matrices, including soil, the foundation of agriculture. In practice, more than 2000 GLY-based herbicide (GBH) products are used, consisting of one or more active ingredients (AIs) and so-called “inert” co-formulants that increase the efficacy of the AIs. However, the focus of ecotoxicological assessments is mainly on AIs, while organisms are exposed to complex pesticide formulations under real-world conditions. Overall, the effects on non-target organisms indicate a broad range of biochemical and physiological modes of action, which contrasts with the general assumption that herbicides are specific and act only on target plants. Both GLY alone and GBHs have unintended side-effects on many terrestrial organisms, including non-target plants, microorganisms, insects, spiders, or earthworms, as well as vertebrates such as amphibians, reptiles, or mammals. One of the triggering mechanisms for these effects is oxidative stress with consequences on biochemical parameters and DNA damage. In addition, disruptions of various physiological, behavioral and ecological processes have been reported. Most studies have examined the short-term effects of a single application of GLY/GBH to a single species. However, the agricultural practice of applying GBHs two to three times during a cultivation season over an extended period of time, the interactions with other pesticides and agrochemicals applied to the same field, and effects on ecological interactions within the field and landscape are rarely considered. In the vast majority of cases, the toxicity of GBHs exceeds the toxicity of GLY, demonstrating that supposedly inert co-formulants are either toxic in their own right or interact and add to the toxicity of AIs. The chemical diversity of different GBHs and the non-disclosure of the co-formulants make it difficult to attribute effects to specific chemical substances within a GBH. Moreover, impurities in GBHs (e.g., heavy metals such as arsenic, chromium, cobalt) pose additional environment and food safety risks. These impacts are even more critical because GBHs are so widely distributed worldwide and interact with other pollutants and environmental stressors. Based on the available literature on terrestrial ecotoxicity, and given the drastic decline in biodiversity, we conclude that the continued high use of GBHs, resulting in increased exposure and risk, cannot be considered ecologically sustainable.

The production of synthetic pesticides is energy intensive and can emit even more greenhouse gases (GHG) per kg than the production of synthetic fertilizers. However, this aspect is largely neglected when it comes to agriculture’s contribution to GHG emissions. Using official pesticide sales data from Austria from 2000 to 2019, we analyzed (i) trends in insecticide, fungicide, and herbicide use and calculated production-related GHG emissions, and (ii) the share of pesticide-related versus fertilizer-related GHG emissions in three agricultural crops with different pesticide intensities: sugar beets, apples, and grapevines. We found that between 2000 and 2019, insecticide amounts increased by 58%, fungicide amounts increased by 29%, and herbicide amounts decreased by 29%; associated GHG emissions showed similar patterns. During the same period, acreage under conventional arable crops, orchards, and vineyards decreased by an average of 19%, indicating an increase in management intensity. In intensive apple production, GHG emissions associated with pesticide production and application accounted for 51% of total GHG emissions, in viticulture 37%, and in sugar beets 12%. We have shown that GHG emissions due to pesticide production and application can be significant, especially for pesticide-intensive crops. We therefore recommend that these pesticide-derived GHG emissions should also be attributed to the agricultural sector.

There is much debate about whether the (mostly synthetic) pesticide active substances (AS) in conventional agriculture have different non-target effects than the natural AS in organic agriculture. We evaluated the official EU pesticide database to compare 256 AS that may only be used on conventional farmland with 134 AS that are permitted on organic farmland. As a benchmark, we used (i) the hazard classifications of the Globally Harmonized System (GHS), and (ii) the dietary and occupational health-based guidance values, which were established in the authorization procedure. Our comparison showed that 55% of the AS used only in conventional agriculture contained health or environmental hazard statements, but only 3% did of the AS authorized for organic agriculture. Warnings about possible harm to the unborn child, suspected carcinogenicity, or acute lethal effects were found in 16% of the AS used in conventional agriculture, but none were found in organic agriculture. Furthermore, the establishment of health-based guidance values for dietary and non-dietary exposures were relevant by the European authorities for 93% of conventional AS, but only for 7% of organic AS. We, therefore, encourage policies and strategies to reduce the use and risk of pesticides, and to strengthen organic farming in order to protect biodiversity and maintain food security.

Background Amphibians and reptiles are among the most endangered vertebrate species worldwide. However, little is known how they are affected by road-kills on tertiary roads and whether the surrounding landscape structure can explain road-kill patterns. The aim of our study was to examine the applicability of open-access remote sensing data for a large-scale citizen science approach to describe spatial patterns of road-killed amphibians and reptiles on tertiary roads. Using a citizen science app we monitored road-kills of amphibians and reptiles along 97.5 km of tertiary roads covering agricultural, municipal and interurban roads as well as cycling paths in eastern Austria over two seasons. Surrounding landscape was assessed using open access land cover classes for the region (Coordination of Information on the Environment, CORINE). Hotspot analysis was performed using kernel density estimation (KDE+). Relations between land cover classes and amphibian and reptile road-kills were analysed with conditional probabilities and general linear models (GLM). We also estimated the potential cost-efficiency of a large scale citizen science monitoring project. Results We recorded 180 amphibian and 72 reptile road-kills comprising eight species mainly occurring on agricultural roads. KDE+ analyses revealed a significant clustering of road-killed amphibians and reptiles, which is an important information for authorities aiming to mitigate road-kills. Overall, hotspots of amphibian and reptile road-kills were next to the land cover classes arable land, suburban areas and vineyards. Conditional probabilities and GLMs identified road-kills especially next to preferred habitats of green toad, common toad and grass snake, the most often found road-killed species. A citizen science approach appeared to be more cost-efficient than monitoring by professional researchers only when more than 400 km of road are monitored. Conclusions Our findings showed that freely available remote sensing data in combination with a citizen science approach would be a cost-efficient method aiming to identify and monitor road-kill hotspots of amphibians and reptiles on a larger scale.

Glyphosate (GLY), the most widely used herbicide active ingredient (AI) in the world, is frequently detected in aquatic environments where it can affect non-target organisms. Globally, more than 2000 commercial GLY-based herbicides (GBHs) are used to control weeds. Non-target organisms are exposed to complex pesticide formulations under real environmental conditions, but the co-formulants contained in GBHs are classified as so-called inert and inactive ingredients in terms of their biological effects. The main objective of this comprehensive review is to compile the results of aquatic ecotoxicological studies on the side-effects of GLY, GBHs, and their formulating agents. Based on the results demonstrated for a variety of plant and animal aquatic organisms, oxidative stress appears to be a major trigger for these adverse effects, affecting the integrity of DNA and other biochemical functions. Furthermore, there is evidence of impairment of various physiological and behavioral functions. Adverse effects of GLY and GBHs have been observed even at very low concentrations. There are also differences in the sensitivity of the aquatic organisms tested, even with similar lifestyles, habitats or identical taxa. The studies typically investigate the short-term effects of a single exposure to GLY/GBH on a single species, whilst in reality multiple applications of GBHs together with other pesticides are common during a cropping cycle. Moreover, the interactions between GLY/GBHs and other aquatic contaminants are rarely studied. Higher toxicity of GBHs compared to GLY alone has often been observed, demonstrating that co-formulants can be highly toxic on their own and markedly increase the toxicity of the GBH formulation. The possible impurities in GBHs, such as heavy metals, can cause additional problems for the environment and food safety. The widespread and massive use of GBHs leads to increased exposure and environmental hazards. In addition, the need for a revision of the risk assessment system is emphasized. According to the results of aquatic ecotoxicological studies, the current use and pollution of the aquatic environment by GLY/GBHs is highly problematic and cannot be considered environmentally sustainable. It is, therefore, necessary to at least tighten the permitted forms of use.

Pesticides are transferred outside of cropland and can affect animals and plants. Here we investigated the distribution of 97 current use pesticides in soil and vegetation as central exposure matrices of insects. Sampling was conducted on 53 sites along eleven altitudinal transects in the Vinschgau valley (South Tyrol, Italy), in Europe’s largest apple growing area. A total of 27 pesticides (10 insecticides, 11 fungicides and 6 herbicides) were detected, originating mostly from apple orchards. Residue numbers and concentrations decreased with altitude and distance to orchards, but were even detected at the highest sites. Predictive, detection-based mapping indicates that pesticide mixtures can occur anywhere from the valley floor to mountain peaks. This study demonstrates widespread pesticide contamination of Alpine environments, creating contaminated landscapes. As residue mixtures have been detected in remote alpine ecosystems and conservation areas, we call for a reduction of pesticide use to prevent further contamination and loss of biodiversity.

In his mini-review Stoner shows that current neonicotinoid risk assessment does not adequately address differences between honey bees (Apis mellifera) and bumble bees (Bombus spp.). Because bumble bee queens are solitary for some time and forage for pollen and nectar themselves, their pesticide exposure is higher than for honey bee queens, where worker bees provide food and are therefore potentially exposed to pesticides. The high bat activity levels above crops, related pesticide inputs and the availability of prey insects, makes a dietary exposure of bats likely. In their review Römbke et al. summarized ecotoxicological effects of pesticides on enchytraeids (Oligochaeta) in agroecosystems. Because of their close contact with the soil pore water, a high ingestion rate and a thin cuticle, they show a high sensitivity to a broad range of pesticides. interactions with environmental stressors such as organismic competition, abiotic factors (temperature, moisture), soil types (humus content), and climate change In conclusion, priorities for future work on pesticides and their effects should focus on investigating or simulating realistic field situations, i.e., multiple applications of pesticides during the growing season including their temporal and spatial interactions with fauna and flora.

Agricultural management is critical in shaping soil carbon (C) stocks, pools and fluxes. The soil priming effect (PE) is known as a key component of the global C cycle that reflects alterations in soil organic carbon (SOC) mineralization induced by fresh C inputs. Here, we show that priming can help to predict soil C content across European Long-Term Experiments (LTEs), a result which was maintained at continental and global scales. Results reveal that lower-intensity management significantly enhances PE in soils from European croplands. Conversely, high-intensity management led to lower or even negative PE. Management intensity influences PE directly through alterations in SOC and indirectly by modifying aggregates stability and microbial biomass. Both fertilization and tillage affect PE, with soils under organic fertilization and no-tillage showing higher values of PE. These findings advance our understanding of the long-term impacts of agricultural management on the C cycle at the continental scale. The priming effect (PE) predicts soil carbon across croplands. Using soils from European long-term experiments, we show that low-intensity management enhances PE, whereas intensive fertilization and tillage reduce it.

Some wildlife species can successfully adapt to urban environments. To prevent potential conflict of these species with humans or their pets, a better understanding of the presence of urban wildlife is needed. However, traditional monitoring methods are often inadequate because many privately owned properties are inaccessible. In this study, we analyse reports of European hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus or E. roumanicus) and badgers (Meles meles) provided by two long-term citizen science projects in the city of Vienna, Austria – stadtwildtiere.at and roadkill.at – to assess habitat preferences and potential ecological interactions. Vienna has a human population of about 2×106 and covers an area of 415 km2, 50 % of which is green space in the form of forests, parks and private gardens. A total of 356 hedgehog and 918 badger sightings were reported between 2012 and 2023. Sightings of both species were positively associated with a mix of sealed/built-up areas and green spaces with meadows and shrubs. However, sightings of both species were negatively associated with arable land, most likely due to the avoidance of open terrain, reduced food availability or simply because both nocturnal species were more difficult to spot on dark arable land. The steeper the slope of a habitat, the fewer hedgehogs were reported, whereas for badgers, a positive correlation between slope and reports was observed in areas with built-up fractions over 15 %. Overall, we observed hardly any hedgehog reports in areas in which badgers were reported. We conclude that citizen science wildlife monitoring can be a good data source to better understand human–wildlife interactions and could therefore be a model for other urban areas and species.