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Recent advances in 3D modelling have greatly improved the digital reconstruction of historic buildings. Traditional 3D modelling methods, while accurate, are very time-consuming and require a detailed focus on complex architectural features. The use of Building Information Modelling (BIM) technology, adapted to historic buildings as Historic Building Information Modelling (HBIM), has made the modelling process easier. However, HBIM still struggles with a lack of detailed object libraries that truly represent the diverse architectural heritage, due to the unique designs of these ancient structures. This article presents a new method using Blender software, focusing on Geometry Nodes and modifier tools for parametric modelling. This method aims to efficiently reconstruct the Rhine region’s castles, which are part of Europe’s most heavily fortified areas with a history that goes back to the XIth century. Many of these castles, over 500 years old, are now ruins. Our method allows for quick changes and detailed customization to meet the specific needs of archaeologists and heritage researchers. Developed as part of the Châteaux Rhénans-Burgen am Oberrhein project, funded by the European Interreg VI programme, this approach focuses on digitizing and promoting the Rhine castles’ heritage. The project aims to fill some gaps in parametric modelling by providing a flexible and dynamic toolset for heritage conservation.

The North China district has been subjected to significant research with regard to the ore-forming dynamics, processes, and quantitative forecasting of gold deposits; it accounts for the highest number of gold reserves and annual products in China. Based on the top-level design of geoscience theory and the method adopted by the National Key R & D Project (deep process and metallogenic mechanism of North China Craton (NCC) metallogenic system), this paper systematically collects and constructs the geoscience data (district, camp, and deposit scales) in four key gold districts of North China (Jiaojia-Sanshandao, Southern Zhaoping, Wulong, and Qingchengzi). The settings associated with the geological dynamics of gold deposits were quantitatively and synthetically analyzed, namely: NCC destruction, metallogenic events, genetic models, and exploration models. Three-dimensional (3D) and four-dimensional (4D) geological modeling was performed using the big data on the districts, while the district-scale 3D exploration criteria were integrated to construct a quantitative exploration model. Among them, FLAC3D modelling and the GeoCube software (version 3.0) were used to implement the numerical simulation of the 3D geological models and the constraints of the fluid saturation parameters of the Jiaojia fault to reconstruct the 4D fault structure models of the Jiaojia fault (with a depth of 5000 m). Using GeoCube3.0, multiple integration modules (general weights of evidence (WofE), Boost WofE, Fuzzy WofE, Logistic Regression, Information Entropy, and Random Forest) and exploration criteria were integrated, while the C-V fractal classification of A, B and C targets in four districts was carried out. The research results are summarized in the following four areas: (1) Four gold districts in the study area have more than three targets (the depth is 3000 m), and the class A, B and C targets exhibit a good spatial correlation with gold bodies that are controlled by mining engineering at depths greater than 1000 m. (2) The Boost WofE method was used to identify the target optimization in 3D spaces (at depths of 3000–5000 m) of the Jiaojia-Sanshandao, Southern Zhaoping, and Wulong districts. (3) The general WofE method is based on the Bayesian theory in 3D space and provides robust integration and target optimization that are suitable for the Jiaojia-Sanshandao and Southern Zhaoping districts in the Jiaodong area; it can also be applied to the Wulong district in the Liaodong area using a quantitative genetic model and an exploration model. Random forest is a multi-objective integration and target optimization method for 3D spaces, and it is suitable for the complex exploration model in the Qingchengzi district of the Liaodong area. The genetic model and exploration criteria associated with the exploration model of the Qingchengzi district were constrained by the common characteristics of the gold fault structure, magmatic rock emplacement in North China, and the strata fold and interlayer detachment structure. (4) Based on the gold reserves and the 3D block unit model of the Sanshandao gold deposit in the Jiaojia-Sanshandao district, the gold contents of the 3D block units in class A and B targets of the ore concentration were estimated to be 65.5% and 25.1%, respectively. The total Au resources of the optimized targets below a depth of 3000 m were 3908 t (including 1700 t reserves), and the total Au resources of the targets at depths from 3000 to 5000 m were 936 t. The study shows that the deep gold deposits in the four gold districts of North China exhibit a strong “transport-deposition” spatial correlation with potential targets. These “transport-deposition” spatial models represent the tectonic-magmatic-hydrothermal activities of the metallogenic system associated with the NCC destruction events and indicate the Au enrichment zones.

“Architecture is a tool,” once wrote the media theorist Vilém Flusser when addressing the first Intl. Symposium on ‘Intelligent Buildings’ in 1987”. [1] “Tools change our thoughts, feelings, and desires.” [2] Flusser’s thesis is: “we are governed by our tools even though we design them ourselves.” [2] We can look at the history of mankind as a feedback process between tools and human beings. That is, “. . . exactly what we are doing when we divide history into earlier and a later stone age, a copper and bronze age, and an iron age.” [2] Today, scientists create computational tools to solve society’s problem of diminishing resources and climate change. The architectural profession appears to be in the throws of a massive technological transformation. However, the profession’s transformation efforts utilize poor sustainability practices in architecture, which has slowed education in carbon-neutral-building and resource-use-benchmarking with parametric-design-software tools. This begs the question of whether architectural curricula and professional initiatives are effective. The current profession’s inability to reach the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change’s (UNIPCC) goal of reducing average CO2e to 80 percent (approximately 1.3 metric tons per person per capita world-wide) by 2050 is alarming. Carbon-neutral-design and resource-use-benchmarking for a greener tomorrow on a comparable global level remains widely unaddressed, despite the increasing, world-wide planning support and exchange with interoperable, parametric BIM mega-data modeling tools. The situation calls for a rapid and fundamental reorientation of our professional practice of and the education in the process of designing, constructing, and operating buildings. This paper is a critical examination of how parametric 3D/4D modeling with integrated sensor-technology can assist us in producing detailed ‘what if’ resource-usage and lifecycle scenarios, which enhance the design, manufacturing, operation, monitoring, and benchmarking of zero-fossil-energy buildings towards carbon neutrality.

In this article, a first of its kind blend of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and biocompatible polycaprolactone (PCL) is introduced by melt mixing and then 3D printed successfully via Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF). Experimental tests are carried out on PCL‐PVC blends to assess thermo‐mechanical behaviors, morphology, fracture toughness, shape‐memory effects and printability. Macro and microscopic tests reveal that PVC‐PCL compounds are miscible due to high molecular compatibility and strong interaction. This causes extraordinary mechanical properties specially for PVC‐10 wt% PCL. In addition to the desired tensile strength (45 MPa), this material has a completely rubbery behavior at ambient temperature, and its total elongation is more than 81%. In addition, due to the high formability of PVC‐PCL at ambient temperature, it has capability of being programed via different shape‐memory protocols. Programming tests show that PVC‐PCL blends have an excellent shape‐memory effect and result in 100% shape recovery. SEM results prove a high improvement of PVC printability with the addition of 10 wt% PCL. Toughened PVC by PCL is herein added to the materials library of FFF 3D printers and expected to revolutionize applications of PVC compounds in the field of biomedical 3D and 4D printing due to its appropriate thermo‐mechanical properties, supreme printability, and excellent biocompatibility.

The concept of soft robots has garnered significant attention in recent studies due to their unique capability to interact effectively with the surrounding environment. However, as the number of innovative soft pneumatic actuators (SPAs) continues to rise, integrating traditional sensors becomes challenging due to the complex and unrestricted movements exhibited by SPA during their operation. This article explores the importance of utilising one-shot multi-material 3D printing to integrate soft force and bending sensors into SPAs. It highlights the necessity of a well-tuned and robust low-cost fabrication process to ensure the functionality of these sensors over an extended period. Fused deposition modelling (FDM) offers a cost-effective solution for embedding sensors in soft robots, directly addressing such necessity. Also, a finite element method (FEM) based on the nonlinear hyper-elastic constitutive model equipped with experimental input is developed to precisely predict the deformation and tip force of the actuators measured in experiments. The dynamic mechanical test is conducted to observe and analyse the behaviour and resistance changes of conductive thermoplastic polyurethane (CTPU) and varioShore TPU (VTPU) during a cyclic test. The flexible sensor can detect deformations in SPAs through the application of air pressure. Similarly, the force sensor exhibits the ability to detect grasping objects by detecting changes in resistance. These findings suggest that the resistance change corresponds directly to the magnitude of the mechanical stimuli applied. Thus, the device shows potential for functioning as a resistive sensor for soft actuation. Furthermore, these findings highlight the significant potential of 3D and 4D printing technology in one-shot fabrication of soft sensor-actuator robotic systems, suggesting promising applications in various fields like grippers with sensors and rehabilitation devices.

4D printing with carbon nanotube (CNT)‐reinforced polymers enables advanced shape‐changing materials but faces challenges in CNT dispersion and performance. This study addresses these limitations by functionalizing CNTs with polyethylene glycol (PEG), significantly enhancing dispersion and interfacial bonding within biocompatible polyvinyl chloride (PVC)‐polycaprolactone (PCL) composites. The composites, tailored for biomedical applications with a glass transition temperature (Tg) of 37–41 °C, exhibit enhanced mechanical, thermal, and shape‐memory properties. At 0.5 wt% CNT, the composite achieves a 25% increase in tensile strength, 95.78% shape fixity, and a 5‐s recovery time, offering an optimal balance of strength, flexibility, and rapid shape recovery. Higher CNT concentrations (5 wt%) further improve thermal stability, increasing the decomposition temperature by 20 °C and storage modulus by 670 MPa, although ductility is reduced. PEG grafting prevents CNT agglomeration, enabling high filler loading without compromising printability, as confirmed through uniform nanoparticle dispersion and defect‐free fused deposition modeling (FDM)‐printed structures. These intelligent composites combine biocompatibility, durability, and excellent shape‐memory performance, making them suitable for diverse structural and biomedical applications, such as adaptive medical devices, ergonomic shoe soles, and wearable biosensors. This novel material provides a versatile platform for high‐performance, 4D‐printed intelligent systems that address current challenges in polymer nanocomposites and advance engineering and biomedical innovations. This study introduces polyethylene glycol‐functionalized carbon nanotubes (CNTs) to enhance dispersion, interfacial bonding, and 4D printability in polyvinyl chloride‐PCL nanocomposites. The optimized 4D composite (0.5 wt% CNT) achieves a 25% increase in tensile strength, 95.78% shape fixity, and 5‐s recovery time. It offers an optimal balance of strength, flexibility, and rapid shape recovery for biomedical and structural applications.

This study explores the 3D/4D printing of polylactic acid (PLA) composites reinforced with natural particles from mussels PLA (MPLA) and wheat PLA (WPLA) using fused filament fabrication (FFF). The study employs functionally graded (FG) and multi‐material (MM) printing processes emphasizing biodegradable and bio‐derived materials. Shape memory polymer composites (SMPCs) with various MM and FG combinations are printed and examined. The microstructure, mechanical properties, flammability, and shape memory characteristics of these SMPCs are evaluated. The findings demonstrate that incorporating mussel and wheat particles enhances the mechanical performance of PLA, with a reduced burning rate compared to pure PLA samples. A sandwich FG composite structure shows superior strength in compression, tensile, and three‐point bending tests, with WMWFG samples exhibiting a 106% increase in tensile strength compared to WPLA samples. The shape recovery and fixity of the 4D‐printed SMPCs are investigated and WPLA specimens reveal the highest shape recovery ratio of ≈ 93.3% ± 1%. These findings highlight the potential of 4D‐printed SMPCs for diverse applications, spanning shape morphing, human‐material interaction, and mechanical engineering. Additionally, the research contributes to sustainability by promoting reduced material consumption and waste generation, as demonstrated by creating reusable and lightweight objects such as miniature pots, cutlery, holders, grippers, and wrappers.

Two-dimensional materials are becoming a new sensation in the chemical, electrical, energy storage, and biomedical industries. Since the invention of graphene, scientists worldwide have been attempting to explore novel 2D materials. High surface-to-volume ratio, lightweight, anisotropy, and multi-functionality are some special features of these 2D materials. Such characteristics can be merged with the fabrication flexibility of 3D printing to develop complex structures including shape, size, and functionality. These complex 3D-printed 2D materials can be used in novel biomedical applications, including the advancement of targeted drug delivery, cancer therapy, tissue engineering, and biosensors. This review article focuses on the recent development of 3D/4D printed complex structures from 2D nanomaterials in biomedical applications. We have assessed the concept of hybridization of existing 2D nanomaterials and discussed the significance of computational modeling in 2D nanomaterials. Current trends, challenges, and prospects of 3D/4D-printed 2D nanomaterials in the biomedical field are also delineated. Graphic abstract

Achieving multifunctional polymer composites that combine mechanical strength, thermal stability, flame retardancy, and shape‐memory capability while remaining compatible with additive manufacturing remains challenging. In this work, a comprehensive materials library of fused filament fabrication (FFF)‐printable polyamide 12 (PA12) composites was developed using bamboo charcoal (BC), a BC/carbon nanotube (BC/CNT) hybrid, and conventional glass fiber (GF) and carbon fibers (CF). PA12/BC and PA12/BC/CNT composites were compounded, extruded into filaments, and systematically characterized in terms of microstructure, wettability, thermomechanical behavior, flammability, shape‐memory performance, and mechanical properties at ambient and elevated temperatures. The BC/CNT hybrid represents the key innovation of this study, enabling a synergistic reinforcement strategy that simultaneously enhances stiffness, strength, damping, thermal stability, flame retardancy, and hydrophobicity while preserving excellent shape‐memory behavior. In contrast, GF and CF reinforced composites provide higher stiffness and strength but suppress shape‐memory functionality. Extending beyond material development, architected shape‐memory polymer meta‐composites with honeycomb, honeycomb‐circle hybrid, and auxetic geometries were fabricated via 4D printing. They demonstrated shape‐recovery, force‐regulating behavior and high energy absorption/dissipation under compression. These results establish BC/CNT‐reinforced PA12 as a more sustainable and multifunctional alternative to conventional fibre‐reinforced systems for advanced additive manufacturing applications. Multifunctional polyamide‐12 composites reinforced with bamboo charcoal and carbon nanotube hybrids are developed for 3D and 4D printing. The materials combine improved mechanical strength, thermal stability, flame retardancy, and shape‐memory behavior. Architected meta‐structures printed from these composites demonstrate programmable shape recovery and energy absorption, offering a sustainable route toward advanced smart polymer structures for engineering applications.

Three Dimensional and Four Dimensional (3D/4D) printing has widespread popularity because of its shape-changing capabilities in various applications. 3D Printing makes only stationary structured products whereas 3D/4D printing enables an object to change its configuration in response with different external stimuli. Researchers from many fields have examined an extensive array of 3D/4D printing using proofs-of-concept. In spite of a lot of efforts, needs more advancement in the structural quality and efficiency to satisfy significant industrial applications which ensure cost effective manufacturing. Thus, the intension of review exercise is to draw attention to the recent metamaterials, manufacturing methods, computational insights of creative and integrated design, and latest uses of 3D/4D printing. An overview of integrated computation design strategies and its contribution in enhancing efficient use of smart materials in vast applications also presented and concluded with the findings like systematically incorporating sustainability variables into cost-effectiveness analyses with recent advancements in additive manufacturing tailored with human material interaction aids industries to make informed decisions that align with economic goals. Future views are critically explored and encouraging the collaboration with fabrication methods directs research efforts in a way incorporating advanced 3D/4D product design methods that satisfy industry and customer demands.