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Background Anatomy is a crucial part of medical education, and there have been attempts to improve this field by utilizing various methods. With the advancement of technology, three-dimensional (3D) materials have gained popularity and become a matter of debate about their effectiveness compared to two-dimensional (2D) sources. This research aims to analyze the effectiveness of 3D PDFs compared to 2D atlases. Methods This study is a randomized controlled trial involving 87 Year-1 and Year-2 medical students at Gazi University Faculty of Medicine, Turkey. The study was conducted in two steps. In Step-1, students were randomized to watch lecture videos on liver anatomy and male genitalia anatomy supplemented with either a 3D PDF (intervention group) or 2D atlas (control group) images. Following the video lectures, a test (immediate test) was administered. In Step-2, the same test (delayed test) was administered 10 days after the immediate test. The test scores were compared between the intervention and control groups. In addition to the descriptive analyses, Chi-square and Mann-Whitney U tests were performed. Results In the immediate test, while there was no significant difference between the groups for the liver test ( p  > 0.05), 3D PDF group’s scores (Median = 24.50) was significantly higher than the 2D atlas group’s in the genitalia test (Median = 21.00), ( p  = 0.017). The effect size (Cohen’s d) was 0.57. In the delayed test, there was no significant difference between the groups in the liver and genitalia tests ( p  > 0.05). However, the effect size in the immediate genitalia test was 0.40. Year-1 students’ immediate test of genitalia performances were significantly higher in the 3D PDF group (Median = 24.00) than the 2D atlas group (Median = 19.00), ( p  = 0.016). The effect size was 0.76. Also, Year-1 students’ 3D PDF group (Median = 20.50) presented with significantly higher performance than the 2D atlas group (Median = 12.00), ( p  = 0.044) in the delayed test of genitalia, with the 0.63 effect size. Conclusion 3D PDF is more effective than 2D atlases in teaching anatomy, especially to initial learners. It is particularly useful for teaching complex anatomical structures, such as male genitalia, compared to the liver. Hence, it may be a valuable tool for medical teachers to utilize during lectures.

Introduction: Since 2013, we have built a 3D Virtual Dissection Laboratory, at the Human Anatomy Department of our University. The laboratory includes off-the-shelf hardware and Free/Open Source Software: an advanced 2D virtual dissection table, based on multitouch (50+ touchpoints) and a 3D display matrix, using passive 3D glasses. For the software, we have used various Free/Open Source Software for Virtual Anatomy. Thus, even today, this lab is one of the most advanced 3D virtual dissection lab in the World. But, it is only one such virtual lab in our University, clearly insufficient for the needs of our thousands students. Because of these reasons our next goal was to develop a virtual dissection lab ready to be used on regular smartphones (Android and/or IOS OS), thus being available to every student who owns such off-the-shelf hardware. Materials and methods: For the development we have used some regular Android smartphones and Bluestacks Android emulator for Windows (www.bluestacks.com). The 3D files for Human Anatomy were reconstructed by us from various Free/Open Source Software and Libraries dedicated to Human Anatomy. Results: The reconstructed 3D anatomical models for Human Anatomy were afterwards incapsulated in a 3D PDF file, ready to be opened using the free 3D PDF reader, available on Google Play or Apple Store. That reader is able to provide a 3D virtual working environment for the users, that includes:  Selection/Reveal or Hiding of a specific Human organ and/or system, single or together with other related anatomical structures;  Dissection of the Human Body and/or anatomical structures, on X, Y or Z (3D) coordinates; and  Possibility of saving a specific Virtual Dissection session, using screen capture utilities available on Android Smartphone, etc. Conclusion: Our research and development have clearly demonstrated the possibility to provide and run a Next-Generation Virtual Dissection Lab using off-the-shelf hardware (Android smartphones), a 3D PDF reader and Human Anatomy models developed on-site by us.

We describe a new and freely available 3D interactive model of the intracranial internal carotid artery (ICA) and the skull base that also allows to display and compare its main segment classifications. High-resolution 3D human angiography (isometric voxel’s size 0.36 mm) and Computed Tomography angiography images were exported to Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML) format for processing in a 3D software platform and embedding in a 3D Portable Document Format (PDF) document that can be freely downloaded at http://diposit.ub.edu/dspace/handle/2445/112442 and runs under Acrobat Reader on Mac and Windows computers and Windows 10 tablets. The 3D–PDF allows for visualisation and interaction through JavaScript-based functions (including zoom, rotation, selective visualization and transparentation of structures or a predefined sequence view of the main segment classifications if desired). The ICA and its main branches and loops, the Gasserian ganglion, the petrolingual ligament and the proximal and distal dural rings within the skull base environment (anterior and posterior clinoid processes, silla turcica, ethmoid and sphenoid bones, orbital fossae) may be visualized from different perspectives. This interactive 3D–PDF provides virtual views of the ICA and becomes an innovative tool to improve the understanding of the neuroanatomy of the ICA and surrounding structures.

A widely known alternative for reading and exchanging digital files is the PDF file, by Adobe. This type of file has become the most used for the electronic exchange of files. It is platform-independent, suitable for the exchange of medical data in electronic academic publication. PDF can support additional resources such image, media, even, three-dimensional surface mesh models. A three-dimensional model of the base of the skull is generated from computed tomography images to provide an overview of the PDF file format, with emphasis on biomedical images. Three-dimensional representation in PDF files offers many advantages, as these images have more information than two-dimensional images, therefore, we consider this tool (3D PDF) a good alternative for the visualization, interaction and distribution of 3D content.

A three-dimensional (3D) model of the skull base was reconstructed from the pre- and post-dissection head CT images and embedded in a Portable Document Format (PDF) file, which can be opened by freely available software and used offline. The CT images were segmented using a specific 3D software platform for biomedical data, and the resulting 3D geometrical models of anatomical structures were used for dual purpose: to simulate the extended endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal approaches and to perform the quantitative analysis of the procedures. The analysis consisted of bone removal quantification and the calculation of quantitative parameters (surgical freedom and exposure area) of each procedure. The results are presented in three PDF documents containing JavaScript-based functions. The 3D-PDF files include reconstructions of the nasal structures (nasal septum, vomer, middle turbinates), the bony structures of the anterior skull base and maxillofacial region and partial reconstructions of the optic nerve, the hypoglossal and vidian canals and the internal carotid arteries. Alongside the anatomical model, axial, sagittal and coronal CT images are shown. Interactive 3D presentations were created to explain the surgery and the associated quantification methods step-by-step. The resulting 3D-PDF files allow the user to interact with the model through easily available software, free of charge and in an intuitive manner. The files are available for offline use on a personal computer and no previous specialized knowledge in informatics is required. The documents can be downloaded at http://hdl.handle.net/2445/55224 .

The Portable Document Format (PDF) is the standard file format for the communication of biomedical information via the internet and for electronic scholarly publishing. Although PDF allows for the embedding of three-dimensional (3D) objects and although this technology has great potential for the communication of such data, it is not broadly used by the scientific community or by clinicians. The objective of this review was to provide an overview of existing publications that apply 3D PDF technology and the protocols and tools for the creation of model files and 3D PDFs for scholarly purposes to demonstrate the possibilities and the ways to use this technology. A systematic literature review was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar. Articles searched for were in English, peer-reviewed with biomedical reference, published since 2005 in a journal or presented at a conference or scientific meeting. Ineligible articles were removed after screening. The found literature was categorized into articles that (1) applied 3D PDF for visualization, (2) showed ways to use 3D PDF, and (3) provided tools or protocols for the creation of 3D PDFs or necessary models. Finally, the latter category was analyzed in detail to provide an overview of the state of the art. The search retrieved a total of 902 items. Screening identified 200 in-scope publications, 13 covering the use of 3D PDF for medical purposes. Only one article described a clinical routine use case; all others were pure research articles. The disciplines that were covered beside medicine were many. In most cases, either animal or human anatomies were visualized. A method, protocol, software, library, or other tool for the creation of 3D PDFs or model files was described in 19 articles. Most of these tools required advanced programming skills and/or the installation of further software packages. Only one software application presented an all-in-one solution with a graphical user interface. The use of 3D PDF for visualization purposes in clinical communication and in biomedical publications is still not in common use, although both the necessary technique and suitable tools are available, and there are many arguments in favor of this technique. The potential of 3D PDF usage should be disseminated in the clinical and biomedical community. Furthermore, easy-to-use, standalone, and free-of-charge software tools for the creation of 3D PDFs should be developed.

Our study compares short-range order parameters refined from the diffuse scattering in single-crystal X-ray and single-crystal electron diffraction data. Nb 0.84 CoSb was chosen as a reference material. The correlations between neighbouring vacancies and the displacements of Sb and Co atoms were refined from the diffuse scattering using a Monte Carlo refinement in DISCUS . The difference between the Sb and Co displacements refined from the diffuse scattering and the Sb and Co displacements refined from the Bragg reflections in single-crystal X-ray diffraction data is 0.012 (7) Å for the refinement on diffuse scattering in single-crystal X-ray diffraction data and 0.03 (2) Å for the refinement on the diffuse scattering in single-crystal electron diffraction data. As electron diffraction requires much smaller crystals than X-ray diffraction, this opens up the possibility of refining short-range order parameters in many technologically relevant materials for which no crystals large enough for single-crystal X-ray diffraction are available.

Our research on a multi-purpose survey of cultural Heritage located in UNESCO Historical Centre of Naples has the following goals: to test some innovative strategies to improve public enjoyment for inaccessible sites; to explore the use of some interactive systems to study heritage in remote; to explore how to access the information system through AR applications. In this paper we are going to focus on comparison between interactive system to access 3D data and photogrammetric processing of panoramic images. We investigated on: a. the use of 360° panorama for 3D restitutions; b. the use of 360° panorama as an interface to 3D data to extract real 3D coordinates and accurately measure distances; c. the use of 3D PDF to access a 3D database.

Three-dimensional (3D) data of many kinds is produced at an increasing rate throughout all scientific disciplines. The Portable Document Format (PDF) is the de-facto standard for the exchange of electronic documents and allows for embedding three-dimensional models. Therefore, it is a well-suited medium for the visualization and the publication of this kind of data. The generation of the appropriate files has been cumbersome so far. This article presents the first release of a software toolbox which integrates the complete workflow for generating 3D model files and ready-to-publish 3D PDF documents for scholarly publications in a consolidated working environment. It can be used out-of-the-box as a simple working tool or as a basis for specifically tailored solutions. A comprehensive documentation, an example project and a project wizard facilitate the customization. It is available royalty-free and for Windows, MacOS and Linux.