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Essential oils (EOs) are important aromatic components of herbs and spices and their biological activities have been known and utilised since ancient times in perfumery, food preservation, flavouring, and medicine. Some of their biological activities include antibacterial, antifungal, anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects amongst others. EOs have received attention in recent years as potential 'natural' alternatives for replacing antibiotic growth promoters (AGPs) in animal diets due to their positive impact on growth performance, gut microbiota and welfare. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of our own published and unpublished data on the antibacterial, antifungal and insecticidal activity of thymol and cinnamaldehyde (TC blend), and to describe the effects of this specific EO blend on gut microbiota, growth performance and welfare, carcass characteristics and food safety. The possible modes of action of EOs are discussed and areas for future research are proposed.

The weaning time is a crucial period in the management of piglets. The risk of development of post-weaning diarrhoea (PWD) in piglets is high. PWD is the cause of serious economic losses in pig herds. Since 2006, the use of antibiotic growth promoters for prevention of diarrhoeal diseases in piglets has been banned. This measure also led to the investigation of alternative suitable feed supplements that would be reasonably efficient in protecting and sustaining animal health and performance. Various natural materials such as probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids, zinc and plant extracts have been tested as effective alternatives to antibiotics. Recently, owing to their high adsorption capacity, research efforts have been conducted on the application of natural clays and clay-based feed supplements. The purpose of this review is to summarize the effect of different alternative components as growth promoters on the health and performance of weaned and growing piglets.

The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect of kaolin feeding on health status, body weight gain (BWG), course of diarrhoeal infections caused by enterotoxigenic strains of Escherichia coli (ETEC) and the level of mycobacterial contamination in weaned piglets. The testing was performed in two experiments involving 40 weaned piglets at the age of 28 days. In the infection-free experiment, piglets were fed a diet without (C0) or with 1% content of kaolin (K0) for 20 days. Subsequently, all of them were fed the same diet without kaolin supplementation for 39 days. Identical diets were fed during the infection experiment, and moreover, both groups (CI and KI) were orally infected with ETEC (O141:F18ac, STa+) on Day 1 of experiment. The short-term feeding of kaolin to weaned piglets had a significant positive effect on their BWG. During the period of feeding the kaolin-containing diets, BWG in C0 and K0 were 0.20 and 0.29 kg, respectively (P less than 0.05), and in CI and KI 0.13 and 0.19 kg, respectively (P less than 0.05). The protective effect of kaolin on the course of ETEC infection was evident. Colonization and shedding of ETEC by piglets fed the kaolin diet were milder and had a shorter duration in comparison with control animals. The culture examination of pure kaolin and kaolin containing diets for mycobacteria were negative. Potentially pathogenic mycobacteria occurring in the environment were isolated from faeces and tissues of pigs. According to these results, supplementation of diets with 1% kaolin to prevent diarrhoea in piglets and to support their growth in the critical post-weaning period could be recommended.

This paper evaluates the impact of long-term supplementation of different forms of zinc and selenium on the content of these substances in the blood and hair of goats. Two analogous supplementation experiments were performed, 37 goats divided into four groups were used in the first trial with the Zn supplementation. Group A (n = 10) was the control group, goats in the group B (n = 9) were supplemented with zinc oxide, Group C (n = 9) with zinc lactate and Group D (n = 9) with zinc chelate. The second trial with Se supplementation was carried out on 20 goats divided into four groups. Group E (n = 5) was the control group, Group F (n = 5) was supplied with a selenium lactate-protein complex, Group G (n = 5) with sodium selenite and Group H (n = 5) with selenium yeast. Three months later Zn and Se concentrations were determined in whole blood, plasma, and hair. Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity was determined in the Se supplementation trial group. At the end of the trial the Zn concentrations in plasma and whole blood were without major differences between the groups. The plasma concentration of Zn did not increase from the initial value at the start of the trial. In hair the average concentration of Zn was 95.2-100.0 mg/kg in all groups. No conclusive relation was confirmed between the values of Zn in hair and its concentration in blood. The Se concentration in whole blood (microg/L) at the end of trial in supplemented groups (F - 188.8+/-24.6; G - 197.2+/-10.9; H - 190.1+/-26.3) was significantly higher than in the control group (103.1+/-23.5). Similarly, the activity of GSH-Px (microkat/L) was significantly higher in all supplemented groups (F - 872.3+/-94.8; G - 659.5+/-176.4; H - 839.8+/-150.8) than in the control group (379.1+/-63.5). Se content in hair (microg/kg) was higher also in all trial groups (F - 242.3+/-41.5; G - 200.5+/-46.9; H - 270.0+/-106.8) than in the control group (174.7+/-38.0). However, it was significantly higher only in Group F. A conclusive correlation was identified between the Se concentration in whole blood and its content in hair (r = 0.54; P less than 0.05; n = 20). None of the supplemented forms of Zn increased its concentration in blood, plasma and hair. On the other hand, the administration of Se led to an increase in the Se concentration in blood, increased the activity of GSH-Px in whole blood and the Se content in hair. Hair can be considered as a suitable material for the diagnosis of long-term Se status in goats. Goats with sufficient Se status are those that have more than 160 microg/kg of Se in hair dry weight.

Twenty Lithuanian Black-and-White calves (10 bulls, 10 heifers) were used to evaluate the effects of the supplemental probiotic product, Enterococcus faecium M74 (2.4 g/day/calve), added to fresh milk and skimmed milk in a 56 day-study. The probiotic was administered by dietary supplementation to first group of calves and their respective pens (probiotic group), whereas the second group (control group) received no probiotic supplementation. The results of this trial indicate positive effects of the probiotic product Enterococcus faecium M74. The actual percentage of calves with diarrhoea was reduced from 50% to 20% among the calves fed the pre- and probiotic diet. Probiotic supplementation reduced the faecal count of clostridia and enterococci. The calves fed Enterococcus faecium M74 weighed more at 20, 40 and 62 days of age by 4.9%, by 9.7% (P less than 0.05) and by 9.4% (P less than 0.01), respectively, than the control calves. The calves fed Enterococcus faecium M74 had increased daily weight gains compared with the calves not fed a probiotic product. The average weight gain and the daily weight gain of the probiotic-supplemented calves were by 7.8 kg (P less than 0.01) and by 0.14 kg higher (P less than 0.01), resp., compared with the control calves. The calves given the Enterococcus faecium M74 also had forage and total DM intakes that were numerically higher than those fed the control diet, without any additive. During the 56 days experimental period, the average feed conversion rate was improved by 12.9% in the probiotic-treated group.

The goal of the experiment was to compare the effect of supplementation of inorganic and the new organically bound form of selenium (lactate-protein selenium complex) in feed for goats. Thirty-one goats were split into three groups as follows: control (C) without Se supplementation, AN group administered sodium selenite, ORG group administered lactate-protein Se complex. The total Se intake was 0.15 mg (group C) and 0.43 mg (groups AN and ORG). Se concentration and the activity of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in whole blood were evaluated. Samples were taken before the beginning of Se supplementation, 14 days, 30 days, 2 months, and 3 months after the beginning of supplementation. Average Se concentrations in the blood of C, AN and ORG goats before the supplementation were 109.6+/-34.3, 117.5+/-34.7, and 105.4+/-43.6 microg/L, respectively, GSH-Px activity was 745.3+/-289.2, 810.7+/-280.4, and 791.0+/-398.1 microkat/L, respectively. There was a significant increase in both Se concentrations and GSH-Px activities in both experimental groups after Se supplementation. At the end of the experiment Se concentrations in the blood of AN and ORG groups amounted to 168.5+/-12.2 and 168.8+/-26.8 microg/L, resp., and GSH-Px activity was 1,178.0+/-127.3 and 1,030.1+/-152.3 microkat/L, resp. A markedly quicker increase in GSH-Px activity was recorded in the AN group - one month after the beginning of Se supplementation in comparison with three months in the ORG group. The results thus show that the effects of selenite and the lactate-protein Se complex are similar with regard to Se status, but the increase in GSH-Px activity occurred much faster with selenite, which therefore appears to be a more biologically available form of Se.

The aim of this study was to examine the physicochemical properties and amino acid composition of rabbit meat after the enrichment of rabbit diet with oregano, sage, and Eleutherococcus senticosus extracts, and to make a comparison with the commercial product XTRACT and control samples. The addition of oregano and sage extracts as well as El. senticosus in the rabbit diet positively influenced the physicochemical properties of rabbit meat by increasing its energy value (P less than 0.05 - sage). Supplementing rabbits feed with oregano and sage extracts led to an improvement of the amino acid composition (P less than 0.01). These findings are also supported by the good health state of rabbits. The diet enriched with the plant extracts is beneficial for the health state of rabbits and the nutritional quality of rabbit meat.

Inclusion of the water-soluble fraction of blue mussels Mytilus galloprovincialis as a feed additive was examined with tiger puffer Takifugu rubripes. The control diet mainly consisted of fish meal, potato starch, and pollack liver oil. Experimental diets were formulated to replace 30% and 40% of the fish meal protein with defatted soybean meal (SBM), and were supplemented with 0-20% mussel extracts. Fish of 18 g initial body weight were fed each diet to satiation, twice daily, 6 days per week for 7 weeks at 20degC. Weight gain and protein efficiency ratio of fish fed the diet containing SBM without the extract were significantly lower than those of the control at the 30% replacement level. Addition of 5% or 10% extract improved the growth and feed utilization to levels comparable to those of the control. At 40% substitution, statistically identical growth and feed performance to the control were obtained for diets supplemented with 10% or 20% extract; however, performance for 5% addition was significantly lower. Thus, the water-soluble fraction of blue mussels would be an effective feeding stimulant in aquaculture feed for tiger puffer that makes it possible to replace 30-40% of fish meal protein with SBM.

Eight barrows (Yorkshire x [Finnish Landrace x Dutch Landrace]), initially 30 kg BW, were fitted with ileal cannulas to evaluate the effects of supplementing Ca benzoate (2.4%) and organic acids (OA) in the amount of 300 mEq acid/kg feed on dietary buffering capacity (BC), apparent digestibility and retention of nutrients, and manure characteristics. Swine were allotted in a 2 x 4 factorial arrangement of treatments according to a cyclic (8 x 5) changeover design. Two tapioca-corn-soybean meal-based diets were formulated without and with acidogenic Ca benzoate. Each diet was fed in combination with OA (none, formic, fumaric, or n-butyric acid). Daily rations were equal to 2.8 x maintenance requirement (418 kJ ME/BW(.75)) and were given in two portions. Chromic oxide (.25 g/kg) was used as a marker. On average, Ca benzoate lowered BC by 54 mEq/kg feed. This salt enhanced (P < .05) the ileal digestibility (ID) of DM, OM, arginine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, alanine, aspartic acid, and tyrosine (by up to 2.4 percentage units). Also, the total tract digestibility (TD) of DM, ash, Ca and GE, and Ca retention (percentage of intake) was greater (P < .05) in swine fed Ca benzoate, whereas N retention remained unaffected. Addition of all OA (formic and n-butyric acid, in particular) exerted a positive effect (P < .05) on the ID of amino acids (except for arginine, methionine, and cysteine). A similar effect (P < .05) was found for the TD of DM, OM, CP, Ca and total P and for the retention of N and Ca. In swine fed Ca benzoate, urinary pH decreased by 1.6 units (P < .001). In conclusion, dietary OA have a beneficial effect on the apparent ileal/total tract nutrient digestibilities, and Ca benzoate increased urine acidity, which could be effective against a rapid ammonia emission from manure of swine.

Peat used as a feed supplement for piglets has favourable dietetic qualities; however, its frequent contamination with potentially pathogenic mycobacteria (PPM) has been shown to pose a potential risk to piglet health. The purpose of the present study was to investigate possible ways of devitalising mycobacteria. Examination of 118 samples from various types of commercially available peat (natural peat, packed peat for horticulture and specially processed peat intended for piglet feeding) showed that PPM were present in 84 samples. Mycobacterium avium subsp. hominissuis (82.1%) was the most frequent mycobacterial isolate. In addition, from a natural locality where peat is mined and stored in large piles for up to four months, mycobacteria were detected in peat samples collected from the surface and from up to 25 cm in depth. We used different physical and chemical procedures for peat decontamination (peracetic acid, formaldehyde, steam, and microwave radiation) in attempting to devitalise the mycobacteria in peat. We found that PPM can be reliably devitalised with 1.0% peracetic acid, or 5.0% formaldehyde. However, under field conditions, when using bulk amounts of peat, none of the above procedures were shown to be suitable. Based on these results, the feeding of peat to piglets is confirmed as a high-risk practice.