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The detection of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) A(H5N1) in dairy cattle in the United States has raised concerns about human exposure. This study evaluated the efficacy of various doses of an inactivated H5 AI vaccine in cattle and assessed antibody transfer in milk against a recent bovine isolate of HPAI A(H5N1, clade 2.3.4.4b). Calves were inoculated with different vaccine doses, while lactating cows received the vaccine four weeks later. The humoral immune response was measured using the Hemagglutination Inhibition (HI) test and ELISA. Results showed a dose-dependent immune response, with higher doses producing stronger and more sustained antibody levels. Group 1 maintained a stable HI titer of 6 log 2 , while Groups 2, 3, and 4 peaked at 8, 9, and 9 log 2 , respectively, by the fourth week post-vaccination. Milk antibody transfer was observed, with strong positive responses in milk samples by the second week post-vaccination. The ID Screen ELISA demonstrated higher sensitivity for detecting antibodies in milk compared to serum. The immune response to the AI vaccine differed from responses to other vaccines used in cattle such as Foot and Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) and Lumpy Skin Disease Virus (LSDV), indicating the need for optimizing vaccine dosage and formulation, including adjuvant and antigen content. Future research should extend the monitoring period, increase sample sizes, and explore different vaccine formulations to develop effective vaccination strategies for cattle. These findings highlight the potential for using inactivated H5 AI vaccines in cattle to enhance immune protection and facilitate antibody transfer through milk.

Controlling avian influenza viruses (AIVs) is mainly based on culling of the infected bird flocks or via the implementation of inactivated vaccines in countries where AIVs are considered to be endemic. Over the last decade, several avian influenza virus subtypes, including highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 clade 2.2.1.2, H5N8 clade 2.3.4.4b and the recent H5N1 clade 2.3.4.4b, have been reported among poultry populations in Egypt. This demanded the utilization of a nationwide routine vaccination program in the poultry sector. Antigenic differences between available avian influenza vaccines and the currently circulating H5Nx strains were reported, calling for an updated vaccine for homogenous strains. In this study, three H5Nx vaccines were generated by utilizing the reverse genetic system: rgH5N1_2.3.4.4, rgH5N8_2.3.4.4 and rgH5N1_2.2.1.2. Further, the immunogenicity and the cross-reactivity of the generated inactivated vaccines were assessed in the chicken model against a panel of homologous and heterologous H5Nx HPAIVs. Interestingly, the rgH5N1_2.3.4.4 induced high immunogenicity in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chicken and could efficiently protect immunized chickens against challenge infection with HPAIV H5N1_2.3.4.4, H5N8_2.3.4.4 and H5N1_2.2.1.2. In parallel, the rgH5N1_2.2.1.2 could partially protect SPF chickens against infection with HPAIV H5N1_2.3.4.4 and H5N8_2.3.4.4. Conversely, the raised antibodies to rgH5N1_2.3.4.4 could provide full protection against HPAIV H5N1_2.3.4.4 and HPAIV H5N8_2.3.4.4, and partial protection (60%) against HPAIV H5N1_2.2.1.2. Compared to rgH5N8_2.3.4.4 and rgH5N1_2.2.1.2 vaccines, chickens vaccinated with rgH5N1_2.3.4.4 showed lower viral shedding following challenge infection with the predefined HPAIVs. These data emphasize the superior immunogenicity and cross-protective efficacy of the rgH5N1_2.3.4.4 in comparison to rgH5N8_2.3.4.4 and rgH5N1_2.2.1.2.

In China, H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) has become widely prevalent in poultry, causing huge economic losses after secondary infection with other pathogens. Importantly, H9N2 AIV continuously infects humans, and its six internal genes frequently reassort with other influenza viruses to generate novel influenza viruses that infect humans, threatening public health. Inactivated whole-virus vaccines have been used to control H9N2 AIV in China for more than 20 years, and they can alleviate clinical symptoms after immunization, greatly reducing economic losses. However, H9N2 AIVs can still be isolated from immunized chickens and have recently become the main epidemic subtype. A more effective vaccine prevention strategy might be able to address the current situation. Herein, we analyze the current status and vaccination strategy against H9N2 AIV and summarize the progress in vaccine development to provide insight for better H9N2 prevention and control.

Migratory birds are a natural reservoir for major respiratory viruses such as the avian influenza virus (AIV) and the avian coronavirus (AvCoV). Transmission of these viruses from migratory birds to domestic birds increases the prevalence of those diseases that cause severe economic and public health concerns in Bangladesh. The study focused on active surveillance of major respiratory viral pathogens in migratory birds, molecular identification of the viruses, and their phylogenetic origin. To conduct this study, 850 environmental samples (830 fecal samples, 10 soil samples, and 10 water samples) were collected during three consecutive winter seasons from three divisions (Dhaka, Sylhet, and Mymensingh) and pooled according to the year of collection and locations, resulting in a total of 184 tested samples. Using gene-specific primers and probes in TaqMan-and SYBR Green-based RT-qPCR assays, the samples were screened for AIV and AvCoV, respectively. Out of the 184 pooled samples, 37 were found to be positive for these respiratory pathogens. Furthermore, out of the 37 (20.11%) positive respiratory pathogens, 11.96% were AIV ( n = 22) and 8.15% were AvCoV ( n = 15). For the first time in Bangladesh, AIV H4N2, H4N6, and AvCoVs have been found in fecal samples from migratory birds through surveillance. Phylogenetic analyses of the HA and NA genes of AIV and the polymerase gene (Orf 1) of AvCoV revealed that these strains share a close phylogenetic relationship with the isolates from wild birds in Europe and Asia. The Bangladeshi strains with Eurasian ancestry might pose a significant threat to migratory birds flying through the Asian flyways. They might also be a potential source of virus introduction and spread to poultry raised on land. These findings emphasize the significance of ongoing AIV and AvCoV surveillance in migratory birds in Bangladesh.

Background: Avian influenza viruses (genus Alphainfluenzavirus, family Orthomyxoviridae) infect avian and mammal hosts. In 2022, the high pathogenicity avian influenza virus (H5N1) spread to South America, resulting in the loss of thousands of wild birds, including endangered species, and severely impacting the global poultry industry. Objectives: We analyzed the complete genomes of influenza viruses obtained from wild birds and backyard poultry in Uruguay between February and May 2023. Methods: Twelve complete genomes were obtained in 2023 from cloacal swabs using Illumina sequencing. Genomes were phylogenetically analyzed with regional and global strains. Findings: The identified strains have multiple basic amino acids at the hemagglutinin cleavage sites, which is typical for highly pathogenic strains. The Uruguayan viruses belonged to hemagglutinin clade 2.3.4.4b of the H5N1 subtype. A reassortment in North America has resulted in some segments of South American strains being of Eurasian or North American origins. The Uruguayan viruses shared a common ancestor with South American strains from Argentina and Chile. The influenza viruses displayed a spatiotemporal divergence pattern rather than being host-specific. Main Conclusions: The arrival of the 2.3.4.4b clade in Uruguay may have been mediated by birds that acquired the virus from Argentine and Chilean waterfowl migrating in the Pacific Flyway.

In order to reduce the costs of integration and verification processes and to optimize the assembly, integration and verification (AIV) flow in the prototype development of small- and medium-sized spacecrafts, an industrial six-axis robot was used as a universal mechanical ground support equipment instead of a tailored prototype specific ground support equipment (GSE). In particular, a robotic platform offers the possibility of embedding verification steps such as mass property determination into the integration process while offering a wider range of ergonomic adaption due to the enhanced number of degrees of freedom compared to a classical static Mechanical GSE (MGSE). This reduces development costs for projects and enhances the flexibility and ergonomics of primarily mechanical AIV operations. In this paper, the robotic MGSE system is described, the operational prospects for in-line verification are elaborated and an example is given showing the possibilities and challenges of its operational use as well as its in-line mass determination capabilities. For this purpose, a method has been developed that allows for the precise measurement of the spacecraft mass using the robot’s existing technology without the need for additional hardware. Subsequent work will extend this to determine the center of gravity and the moments of inertia of the payload on the robotic MGSE.

The just-in-time concept, mass customization, omnichannel distribution, and the rising global population have all fueled the logistics sector. Consequently, using automation inside the warehouses to make them more dynamic and sustainable for the future is one of the crucial components to adapt to this quick shift. Giants in the industry and technology are becoming more interested in the “smart warehouse” system, built with innovative warehousing technologies, as an achievable solution for the development of warehouses in the future. To contextualize the past and provide light on prospective future directions, a study of current articles in the literature is important. This study evaluates works published in the previous 32 years related to flexible automation in warehouses to create a framework that future academics might use to guide them in establishing an original conceptual model that might be implemented at warehouses. One hundred eleven selected, examined, and categorized publications were published between 1990 and 2022 to establish a significant foundation for earlier research. Results indicated that combining automated machinery, collecting data technologies, and management systems are essential to creating a flexible automated warehouse. Finally, based on the examined literature, a flexible automated warehouse framework is suggested to direct future research in this field.

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) poses a major threat to the world economy and human health; hence, rapid and accurate identification of avian influenza virus (AIV) subtypes is required for effective surveillance and outbreak prevention, particularly in remote or resource-limited settings. Here, we present a portable laboratory system designed to streamline the characterisation of AIV subtypes. This system integrates sample processing, rapid sequencing, and easy to use bioinformatics pipelines to enable characterisation of AIV subtypes, directly from the field. The approach also reduces the chances of samples being degraded, delayed or mixed-up during transport to the laboratory. Equipment for the portable system was first assessed in the laboratory, using AIV isolates with known subtypes, then with swabs collected from several locations in New Zealand. The system was then deployed in the field in Antarctica in December 2024, where it identified HPAI H5N1 in a skua, demonstrating its ability to characterise AIV subtypes rapidly and accurately in situ. This highlights the potential of our portable field system to enhance AIV surveillance in challenging environments and to mitigate the impact of its spread.

Avian influenza virus (AIV) subtypes H5 and H7 can infect poultry causing low pathogenicity (LP) AI, but these LPAIVs may mutate to highly pathogenic AIV in chickens or turkeys causing high mortality, hence H5/H7 subtypes demand statutory intervention. Serological surveillance in the European Union provides evidence of H5/H7 AIV exposure in apparently healthy poultry. To identify the most sensitive screening method as the first step in an algorithm to provide evidence of H5/H7 AIV infection, the standard approach of H5/H7 antibody testing by haemagglutination inhibition (HI) was compared with an ELISA, which detects antibodies to all subtypes. Sera (n = 1055) from 74 commercial chicken flocks were tested by both methods. A Bayesian approach served to estimate diagnostic test sensitivities and specificities, without assuming any ‘gold standard’. Sensitivity and specificity of the ELISA was 97% and 99.8%, and for H5/H7 HI 43% and 99.8%, respectively, although H5/H7 HI sensitivity varied considerably between infected flocks. ELISA therefore provides superior sensitivity for the screening of chicken flocks as part of an algorithm, which subsequently utilises H5/H7 HI to identify infection by these two subtypes. With the calculated sensitivity and specificity, testing nine sera per flock is sufficient to detect a flock seroprevalence of 30% with 95% probability.

Avian influenza viruses (AIVs) pose threats to animal and human health. Outbreaks from the highly pathogenic avian influenza virus (HPAIV) in indigenous chickens in Bangladesh are infrequent. This could be attributed to the Myxovirus resistance (Mx) gene. To determine the impact of Mx gene diversity on AIV infections in chicken, we assessed the Mx genes, AIVs, and anti-AIV antibodies. DNA from blood cells, serum, and cloacal swab samples was isolated from non-vaccinated indigenous chickens and vaccinated commercial chickens. Possible relationships were assessed using the general linear model (GLM) procedure. Three genotypes of the Mx gene were detected (the resistant AA type, the sensitive GG type, and the heterozygous AG type). The AA genotype (0.48) was more prevalent than the GG (0.19) and the AG (0.33) genotypes. The AA genotype was more prevalent in indigenous than in commercial chickens. A total of 17 hemagglutinating viruses were isolated from the 512 swab samples. AIVs were detected in two samples (2/512; 0.39%) and subtyped as H1N1, whereas Newcastle disease virus (NDV) was detected in the remaining samples. The viral infections did not lead to apparent symptoms. Anti-AIV antibodies were detected in 44.92% of the samples with levels ranging from 27.37% to 67.65% in indigenous chickens and from 26% to 87.5% in commercial chickens. The anti-AIV antibody was detected in 40.16%, 65.98%, and 39.77% of chickens with resistant, sensitive, and heterozygous genotypes, respectively. The genotypes showed significant association (p < 0.001) with the anti-AIV antibodies. The low AIV isolation rates and high antibody prevalence rates could indicate seroconversion resulting from exposure to the virus as it circulates. Results indicate that the resistant genotype of the Mx gene might not offer anti-AIV protection for chickens.