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To achieve the mission of personalized medicine, centering on delivering the right drug to the right patient at the right dose, therapeutic drug monitoring solutions are necessary. In that regard, wearable biosensing technologies, capable of tracking drug pharmacokinetics in noninvasively retrievable biofluids (e.g., sweat), play a critical role, because they can be deployed at a large scale to monitor the individuals’ drug transcourse profiles (semi) continuously and longitudinally. To this end, voltammetry-based sensing modalities are suitable, as in principle they can detect and quantify electroactive drugs on the basis of the target’s redox signature. However, the target’s redox signature in complex biofluid matrices can be confounded by the immediate biofouling effects and distorted/buried by the interfering voltammetric responses of endogenous electroactive species. Here, we devise a wearable voltammetric sensor development strategy—centering on engineering the molecule–surface interactions—to simultaneously mitigate biofouling and create an “undistorted potential window” within which the target drug’s voltammetric response is dominant and interference is eliminated. To inform its clinical utility, our strategy was adopted to track the temporal profile of circulating acetaminophen (a widely used analgesic and antipyretic) in saliva and sweat, using a surface-modified boron-doped diamond sensing interface (cross-validated with laboratory-based assays, R² ∼ 0.94). Through integration of the engineered sensing interface within a custom-developed smartwatch, and augmentation with a dedicated analytical framework (for redox peak extraction), we realized a wearable solution to seamlessly render drug readouts with minute-level temporal resolution. Leveraging this solution, we demonstrated the pharmacokinetic correlation and significance of sweat readings.

Currently, analgesics and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are classified as one of the most emerging group of xenobiotics and have been detected in various natural matrices. Among them, monocyclic paracetamol and ibuprofen, widely used to treat mild and moderate pain are the most popular. Since long-term adverse effects of these xenobiotics and their biological and pharmacokinetic activity especially at environmentally relevant concentrations are better understood, degradation of such contaminants has become a major concern. Moreover, to date, conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not fully adapted to remove that kind of micropollutants. Bioremediation processes, which utilize bacterial strains with increased degradation abilities, seem to be a promising alternative to the chemical methods used so far. Nevertheless, despite the wide prevalence of paracetamol and ibuprofen in the environment, toxicity and mechanism of their microbial degradation as well as genetic background of these processes remain not fully characterized. In this review, we described the current state of knowledge about toxicity and biodegradation mechanisms of paracetamol and ibuprofen and provided bioinformatics analysis concerning the genetic bases of these xenobiotics decomposition.

In this work, a novel 3D μPAD cellulose-based colorimetric chemosensor for multiplexed detection of paracetamol and aspirin in biological samples is proposed. The easy availability of analgesics such as paracetamol and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, over-the-counter drugs that can be acquired without medical prescription, can entail a health problem if they are administered incorrectly. The development of analytical procedures for the rapid, sensitive, and accurate determination of such drugs in clinical samples is of utmost importance. Different parameters involved in the design of the 3D μPAD system and the colorimetric reaction conditions have been optimized. Under optimal conditions, detection limits of 0.004 mM and 0.013 mM were obtained for paracetamol and aspirin, respectively. The proposed procedure was validated against two certified reference materials and applied to the analysis of several synthetic urine and saliva samples. Synthetic urine and saliva samples were spiked at two concentration levels, showing recoveries in the range of 98–103% with a relative standard deviation of 3–6% (n = 6).

Electrochemical sensors and biosensors have attracted considerable attention for the sensitive detection of a variety of biological and pharmaceutical compounds. Since the discovery of carbon-based nanomaterials, including carbon nanotubes, C60 and graphene, they have garnered tremendous interest for their potential in the design of high-performance electrochemical sensor platforms due to their exceptional thermal, mechanical, electronic, and catalytic properties. Carbon nanomaterial-based electrochemical sensors have been employed for the detection of various analytes with rapid electron transfer kinetics. This feature article focuses on the recent design and use of carbon nanomaterials, primarily single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), reduced graphene oxide (rGO), SWCNTs-rGO, Au nanoparticle-rGO nanocomposites, and buckypaper as sensing materials for the electrochemical detection of some representative biological and pharmaceutical compounds such as methylglyoxal, acetaminophen, valacyclovir, β-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide hydrate (NADH), and glucose. Furthermore, the electrochemical performance of SWCNTs, rGO, and SWCNT-rGO for the detection of acetaminophen and valacyclovir was comparatively studied, revealing that SWCNT-rGO nanocomposites possess excellent electrocatalytic activity in comparison to individual SWCNT and rGO platforms. The sensitive, reliable and rapid analysis of critical disease biomarkers and globally emerging pharmaceutical compounds at carbon nanomaterials based electrochemical sensor platforms may enable an extensive range of applications in preemptive medical diagnostics.

There has been no assessment of the greenness of the described analytical techniques for the simultaneous determination (SMD) of caffeine and paracetamol. As a result, in comparison to the greener normal-phase high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HPTLC) technique, this research was conducted to develop a rapid, sensitive, and greener reversed-phase HPTLC approach for the SMD of caffeine and paracetamol in commercial formulations. The greenness of both techniques was calculated using the AGREE method. For the SMD of caffeine and paracetamol, the greener normal-phase and reversed-phase HPTLC methods were linear in the 50–500 ng/band and 25–800 ng/band ranges, respectively. For the SMD of caffeine and paracetamol, the greener reversed-phase HPTLC approach was more sensitive, accurate, precise, and robust than the greener normal-phase HPTLC technique. For the SMD of caffeine paracetamol in commercial PANEXT and SAFEXT tablets, the greener reversed-phase HPTLC technique was superior to the greener normal-phase HPTLC approach. The AGREE scores for the greener normal-phase and reversed-phase HPTLC approaches were estimated as 0.81 and 0.83, respectively, indicated excellent greenness profiles for both analytical approaches. The greener reversed-phase HPTLC approach is judged superior to the greener normal-phase HPTLC approach based on numerous validation parameters and pharmaceutical assays.

The combination of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) and carbon black (CB) is presented to produce a high-performance electrically conductive recycled additive manufacturing filament. The filament and subsequent additively manufactured electrodes were characterised by TGA, XPS, Raman, and SEM and showed excellent low-temperature flexibility. The MWCNT/CB filament exhibited an improved electrochemical performance compared to an identical in-house produced bespoke filament using only CB. A heterogeneous electrochemical rate constant, k obs 0 of 1.71 (± 0.19) × 10 −3 cm s −1 was obtained, showing an almost six times improvement over the commonly used commercial conductive CB/PLA. The filament was successfully tested for the simultaneous determination of acetaminophen and phenylephrine, producing linear ranges of 5–60 and 5–200 μM, sensitivities of 0.05 μA μM −1 and 0.14 μA μM −1 , and limits of detection of 0.04 μM and 0.38 μM, respectively. A print-at-home device is presented where a removable lid comprised of rPLA can be placed onto a drinking vessel and the working, counter, and reference components made from our bespoke MWCNT/CB filament. The print-at-home device was successfully used to determine both compounds within real pharmaceutical products, with recoveries between 87 and 120% over a range of three real samples. This work paves the way for fabricating new highly conductive filaments using a combination of carbon materials with different morphologies and physicochemical properties and their application to produce additively manufactured electrodes with greatly improved electrochemical performance. Graphical abstract

The global prevalence of counterfeit and low-quality pharmaceuticals poses significant health risks and challenges in medical treatments, creating a need for rapid and reliable drug screening technologies. This study introduces a cost-effective electrochemical paper-based device (ePAD) modified with functionalized bamboo-derived biochar (BCF) for the detection of paracetamol in substandard medicines. The sensor was fabricated using a custom 3D-printed stencil in PLA, designed for efficient production, and a 60:40 (m/m) graphite (GR) and glass varnish (GV) conductive ink, resulting in a robust and sensitive platform. The electroactive area of the ePAD/BCF sensor was determined as 0.37 cm2. Characterization via SEM and cyclic voltammetry (CV) verified its structural and electrochemical stability. The sensor demonstrated linear detection of paracetamol from 5.0 to 60.0 µmol L−1 with a detection limit of 3.50 µmol L−1. Interference studies showed high selectivity, with recoveries of over 90%, and the sensor successfully quantified paracetamol in commercial analgesic and anti-flu samples. This sustainable, bamboo-based ePAD offers a promising solution for rapid on-site pharmaceutical quality control, with significant potential to enhance drug screening accuracy.

A comparative study was carried out on the electrochemical behavior of three carbonized zeolitic imidazolate frameworks (ZIFs) synthesized through solvothermal pyrolysis. An electrochemical sensor for acetaminophen (ACT) was subsequently developed. The sensor was made by coating the glassy carbon electrode (GCE) with cobalt-nitrogen co-doped carbon nanotube hollow polyhedron (Co-NCNHP), which was prepared from core shell ZIF-8@ZIF-67, before electrodeposition of gold nanoparticles. Due to the high specific surface area, good electrical conductivity and stability of both Co-NCNHP and the gold nanoparticles, the resultant sensor displayed excellent electrocatalytic activity towards ACT with the catalytic rate constant K cat of 4.9 × 10 5  M −1  s −1 , diffusion coefficient D of 1.8 × 10 −6  cm 2  s −1 , high sensitivity of 1.75 μA μM −1  cm −2 , and best at a working voltage of 0.35 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). Benefitting from the synergistic effect of both Co-NCNHP and gold nanoparticles, the modified GCE had a linear response in the 0.1 μM–250 μM ACT and detection limit of 0.05 μM (at S/ N  = 3). The sensor was successfully applied to quantify ACT in tablets and spiked urine samples with recoveries ranged between 96.0% and 105.2%. Graphical abstract Schematic representation of cobalt-nitrogen co-doped carbon nanotube hollow polyhedrons (Co-NCNHP) exhibiting superior electrocatalytic activity to carbonized ZIF-8 and carbonized ZIF-67. Co-NCNHP were coupled to electrodeposition gold nanoparticles to modify glassy carbon electrode for improving acetaminophen (ACT) redox.

This study used substituted barium hexaferrites, which were previously prepared and reported by the authors, to detect acetaminophen by the modification of a conventional glassy carbon electrode (GCE), which led to promising results. The synthesis of this electrode-modifying material was conducted using a citrate sol gel process. A test synthesis using glycerin and propylene glycol revealed that glycerin produced a better result, while less positive anodic potential values were associated with the electrooxidation of N-acetyl-p-aminophenol (NAP). Excellent electroactivity was exhibited by the cobalt-substituted barium-hexaferrite-nanomaterial-modified electrode. A good linear relationship between the concentration and the current response of acetaminophen (paracetamol) was obtained with a detection limit of (0.255 ± 0.005) µM for the Ba1.0Co1.22Fe11.41O18.11 GCE, (0.577 ± 0.007) µM for the Ba1.14Cu0.82Fe11.65O18.02 GCE, and (0.595 ± 0.008) µM for the bare GCE. The levels of NAP in a real sample of urine were quantitatively analyzed using the proposed method, with recovery ranges from 96.6% to 101.0% and 93.9% to 98.4% for the modified electrode with Cobalt-substituted barium hexaferrites (CoFM) and Copper-substituted barium hexaferrites (CuFM), respectively. These results confirm the high electrochemical activity of Ba1.0Co1.22Fe11.41O18.11 nanoparticles and thus their potential for use in the development of sensing devices for substances of pharmaceutical interest, such as acetaminophen (NAP).

Solar Fenton is an important and extensively used advanced oxidation process (AOP) to degrade pharmaceutical pollutants. The objective of this study was to evaluate the performance of simultaneous degradation of the mixed pollutants (amoxicillin, acetaminophen, and ciprofloxacin) for an aqueous solution using the solar Fenton process. Operating parameters such as pH, iron doses, H 2 O 2 doses, pollutant concentrations, and time were studied. From the experimental results, the ideal conditions were obtained for the removal of mixed pollutants such as pH 3, Fe 2+ 0.04 mM, H 2 O 2 4 mM, the concentration of the mixed pollutants 5 mg/L, solar radiation 400 W/m 2 , and time 10 min, respectively. The pseudo-first-order kinetics were utilized to investigate the degradation efficacy of the mixed pollutants. The result of the study indicates that the degradation efficiency was > 99% for the mixed pollutants. A maximum of 63% mineralization was observed, and hydroxyl radical scavenger effects were studied. The best optimal conditions were applied to assess the spiked wastewater (municipal wastewater (MWW) and hospital wastewater (HWW)). The highest elimination rates for AMX, ACET, and CIP were observed as 65%, 89%, and 85% for MWW and 76%, 92%, and 80% for HWW, respectively. The degraded by-products were detected by LC–ESI–MS in the water matrix (aqueous solution and spiked wastewater), and ECOSAR analysis was performed for the transformed products. The study concluded that the solar Fenton technique is promising and effective for the removal of mixed pollutants from the water matrix.