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We describe animal-to-human transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in a zoo setting in Indiana, USA. A vaccinated African lion with physical limitations requiring hand feeding tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 after onset of respiratory signs. Zoo employees were screened, monitored prospectively for onset of symptoms, then rescreened as indicated; results were confirmed by using reverse transcription PCR and whole-genome virus sequencing when possible. Traceback investigation narrowed the source of infection to 1 of 6 persons. Three exposed employees subsequently had onset of symptoms, 2 with viral genomes identical to the lion's. Forward contact tracing investigation confirmed probable lion-to-human transmission. Close contact with large cats is a risk factor for bidirectional zoonotic SARS-CoV-2 transmission that should be considered when occupational health and biosecurity practices at zoos are designed and implemented. SARS-CoV-2 rapid testing and detection methods for big cats and other susceptible animals should be developed and validated to enable timely implementation of One Health investigations.

Home range size and space use patterns are fundamental concepts for understanding animal movement and ecological needs, and are the most commonly reported ecological attributes of free-ranging mammals. The objectives of this study were to determine the home range sizes and drivers of space use patterns of free-roaming resident lions ( Panthera leo ) in Chizarira National Park (CNP). Using movement data from four GPS collared prides, the adehabitatHR package was used to compute the home range sizes of the prides between 2017 and 2019. Five environmental factors were hypothesized as a priori to be good predictors of lion space use, namely: prey species, elevation, human settlements, water points, and habitat type. Based on the five environmental predictors, maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model was used to assist in understanding the main drivers of lion space use in CNP. Validation performance of the MaxEnt model was done using the area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC) concept. The prop. test was run at 95% confidence interval to see if there were seasonal significance differences in the home range sizes of the study prides. The home range sizes varied from 95.99 km² to 316.53 km² and from 50.53 km² to 706.89 km² (95% KDE) in dry and wet seasons, respectively. Home range sizes were highly significant between the wet and dry season (prop.test, p < 0.000) with no establishment of home ranges in the northeastern side of the park. Receiver operating characteristics (ROC) confirmed that the MaxEnt model fitted well (Test AUC = 0.76). Individual variable contribution indicated that prey species (75.9 %), elevation (13.3%), and water points (6.5%) contained the most important information to explain the lion space use patterns in CNP. The findings of this study may be applicable to other wild lion populations in protected areas in which data paucity on the spatial ecology of lions limit effective decision making about lion conservation. Potential management interventions to indirectly influence lion space use, such as enhancing water availability and protection of wildlife corridors could improve lion survival and conservation in CNP and in the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA TFCA) at large.

Background The lion ( Panthera leo ) is one of the most popular and iconic feline species on the planet, yet in spite of its popularity, the last century has seen massive declines for lion populations worldwide. Genomic resources for endangered species represent an important way forward for the field of conservation, enabling high-resolution studies of demography, disease, and population dynamics. Here, we present a chromosome-level assembly from a captive African lion from the Exotic Feline Rescue Center (Center Point, IN) as a resource for current and subsequent genetic work of the sole social species of the Panthera clade. Results Our assembly is composed of 10x Genomics Chromium data, Dovetail Hi-C, and Oxford Nanopore long-read data. Synteny is highly conserved between the lion, other Panthera genomes, and the domestic cat. We find variability in the length of runs of homozygosity across lion genomes, indicating contrasting histories of recent and possibly intense inbreeding and bottleneck events. Demographic analyses reveal similar ancient histories across all individuals during the Pleistocene except the Asiatic lion, which shows a more rapid decline in population size. We show a substantial influence on the reference genome choice in the inference of demographic history and heterozygosity. Conclusions We demonstrate that the choice of reference genome is important when comparing heterozygosity estimates across species and those inferred from different references should not be compared to each other. In addition, estimates of heterozygosity or the amount or length of runs of homozygosity should not be taken as reflective of a species, as these can differ substantially among individuals. This high-quality genome will greatly aid in the continuing research and conservation efforts for the lion, which is rapidly moving towards becoming a species in danger of extinction.

Large carnivores are experiencing range contraction and population declines globally. Prey depletion due to illegal offtake is considered a major contributor, but the effects of prey depletion on large carnivore demography are rarely tested. We measured African lion density and tested the factors that affect survival using mark–recapture models fit to six years of data from known individuals in Kafue National Park (KNP), Zambia. KNP is affected by prey depletion, particularly for large herbivores that were preferred prey for KNP lions a half-century ago. This provides a unique opportunity to test whether variables that explain local prey density also affect lion survival. Average lion density within our study area was 3.43 individuals/100 km² (95% CI, 2.79–4.23), which was much lower than lion density reported for another miombo ecosystem with similar vegetation structure and rainfall that was less affected by prey depletion. Despite this, comparison to other lion populations showed that age- and sex-specific survival rates for KNP lions were generally good, and factors known to correlate with local prey density had small effects on lion survival. In contrast, recruitment of cubs was poor and average pride size was small. In particular, the proportion of the population comprised of second-year cubs was low, indicating that few cubs are recruited into the subadult age class. Our findings suggest that low recruitment might be a better signal of low prey density than survival. Thus, describing a lion population’s age structure in addition to average pride size may be a simple and effective method of initially evaluating whether a lion population is affected by prey depletion. These dynamics should be evaluated for other lion populations and other large carnivore species. Increased resource protection and reducing the underlying drivers of prey depletion are urgent conservation needs for lions and other large carnivores as their conservation is increasingly threatened by range contraction and population declines.

Aim Predict empirically the current and recent historical (c1970) landscape connectivity and population size of the African lion as a baseline against which to assess conservation of the species. Location Continental Africa. Methods We compiled historical records of lion distribution to generate a recent historical range for the species. Historical population size was predicted using a generalized additive model. Resistant kernel and factorial least‐cost path analyses were used to predict recent historical landscape connectivity and compare this with contemporary connectivity at continental, regional and country scales. Results We estimate a baseline population of ~92,054 (83,017–101,094 95% CI) lions in c1970, suggesting Africa's lion population has declined by ~75%, over the last five decades. Although greatly reduced from historical extents (c1500AD), recent historical lion habitat was substantially connected. However, in comparison, contemporary population connectivity has declined dramatically, with many populations now isolated, as well as large declines within remaining population core areas. This decline was most marked in the West and Central region, with a 90% decline in connected habitat compared with its c1970 extent. The Eastern and Southern regions have experienced lower, though significant, declines in connected habitat (44% and 55%, respectively). Contemporary populations are connected by three non‐core habitat linkages and 15 potential corridors (spanning unconnected habitat) that may allow dispersal and gene flow. Declining connectivity mirrors recent studies showing loss of genetic diversity and increasing genetic isolation of lion populations. Main conclusions We provide an empirically derived baseline for African lion population size, habitat extent and connectivity in c1970 and at present against which to evaluate contemporary conservation of the species, avoiding a shifting baseline syndrome where conservation success/failure is measured only against recent population size or range. We recommend priorities for conservation of existing connections to avoid further fragmentation.

1. Demography and conservation status of many wild organisms are increasingly shaped by interactions with humans. This is particularly the case for large, wide-ranging carnivores. 2. Using 206 mortality records (1999-2012) of lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, we calculated mortality rates for each source of anthropogenic mortality, modelled risk of anthropogenic mortality across the landscape accounting for time lions spent in different parts of the landscape, and assessed whether subsets of the population were more at risk. 3. Anthropogenic activities caused 88% of male and 67% of female mortalities; male mortality being dominated by trophy hunting while the sources for female mortality were more varied (bycatch snaring, retaliatory killing, hunting). 4. Landscapes of anthropogenic mortality risk revealed that communal subsistence farming areas, characterized by high risk (due to retaliatory killing) but avoided by lions, are population sinks. Trophy hunting areas and areas within protected areas bordering communal farmland, where bushmeat snaring is prevalent, form 'ecological traps' (or 'attractive sinks'). 5. Lions avoided risky areas, suggesting they may make behavioural decisions based on perceptions of risk. Experienced adults used risky areas less and incorporated lower proportions of them in their home ranges than young individuals, suggesting that the latter may either be naïve or forced into peripheral habitats. 6. Synthesis and applications. This paper contributes to an understanding of how large carnivore populations are affected by anthropogenic mortality across the conservation landscape. This is critical to designing focussed, appropriate and cost-effective conservation management strategies. Agricultural areas are intuitively identified by conservationists as being risky for carnivores due to retaliatory killing, with threats largely mitigated against by improving livestock protection. However, parts of protected areas may also form less easily identified 'attractive sinks' for carnivores. In particular, trophy hunting areas adjacent to national parks need careful management to avoid damaging effects of overhunting. Law enforcement is needed to reduce the effects of bushmeat poaching on predators and other wildlife in protected areas. To be most effective, resource-limited antipoaching activities should prioritize wildlife-rich areas close to human settlement as these tend to be hot spots for bushmeat poaching.

African lions ( Panthera leo ) are in decline across many parts of the continent with retaliatory killing of lions for attacks on livestock being an important cause. In East Africa, projects are fortifying bomas to reduce large carnivore conflicts with the specific goal of preventing the indiscriminate killing of lions. A lack of evidence-based studies evaluating the impact of these efforts means their efficacy for lion conservation is not yet scientifically verifiable. We evaluated fortified bomas by comparing large carnivore attack rates at 84 unprotected bomas and 62 fortified bomas called Living Walls. The latter were 99.9 % successful in preventing nighttime carnivore attacks over 1,790 boma-months. Following Living Wall installation, there were no lion deaths at fortified bomas. Our results demonstrate the importance of predator-proof enclosures as a tool for lion conservation across the continent in areas where they inhabit human–and livestock–dominated landscapes. This study also contributes more broadly by highlighting the importance of scientifically evaluating conservation efforts.

Dispersal is one of the most important life-history traits affecting species persistence and evolution and is increasingly relevant for conservation biology as ecosystems become more fragmented. However, movement during different dispersal stages has been difficult to study and remains poorly understood. We analyzed movement metrics and patterns of autocorrelation from GPS data for 20 lions ( Panthera leo ) over a five-year period. We compared movement among different stages of natal dispersal (departure, transience, and settlement), in addition to that of territorial adults of both sexes. The movement of lions differed according to dispersal stage, sex, group size, and rainfall. As expected, during dispersal lions moved faster and further and in a more directional manner than pre- or post-dispersal. Transient movement was more directional than adult movement, but somewhat surprisingly, was slower with less net displacement than that of territorial males. Interestingly, the effect of group size on movement differed between transient males and territorial males; solitary dispersers moved faster and further than individuals in bigger groups, while territorial males had the opposite trend. Although our sample size is limited, our results suggest a transition from directional movement during transience to random or periodic use of a fixed territory after settlement. In addition, group size may affect the search and settlement strategies of dispersers while seeking a territory in which to settle.

Human–carnivore conflicts and retaliatory killings contribute to carnivore populations' declines around the world. Strategies to mitigate conflicts have been developed, but their efficacy is rarely assessed in a randomized case–control design. Further, the economic costs prevent the adoption and wide use of conflict mitigation strategies by pastoralists in rural Africa. We examined carnivore (African lion [Panthera leo], leopard [Panthera pardus], spotted hyena [Crocuta crocuta], jackal [Canis mesomelas], and cheetah [Acinonyx jubatus]) raids on fortified (n = 45, total 631 monthly visits) and unfortified (traditional, n = 45, total 521 monthly visits) livestock enclosures (“bomas”) in northern Tanzania. The study aimed to (a) assess the extent of retaliatory killings of major carnivore species due to livestock depredation, (b) describe the spatiotemporal characteristics of carnivore raids on livestock enclosures, (c) analyze whether spatial covariates influenced livestock depredation risk in livestock enclosures, and (d) examine the cost‐effectiveness of livestock enclosure fortification. Results suggest that (a) majority of boma raids by carnivores were caused by spotted hyenas (nearly 90% of all raids), but retaliatory killings mainly targeted lions, (b) carnivore raid attempts were rare at individual households (0.081 raid attempts/month in fortified enclosures and 0.102 raid attempts/month in unfortified enclosures), and (c) spotted hyena raid attempts increased in the wet season compared with the dry season, and owners of fortified bomas reported less hyena raid attempts than owners of unfortified bomas. Landscape and habitat variables tested, did not strongly drive the spatial patterns of spotted hyena raids in livestock bomas. Carnivore raids varied randomly both spatially (village to village) and temporally (year to year). The cost‐benefit analysis suggest that investing in boma fortification yielded positive net present values after two to three years. Thus, enclosure fortification is a cost‐effective strategy to promote coexistence of carnivores and humans. Carnivore raid attempts at individual households are quite rare, but fortified bomas are effective in reducing carnivore raids. Spotted hyena was the main carnivore raiding livestock bomas, and the raids increased in the wet season compared with the dry season. Owners of fortified bomas reported less hyena raid attempts than owners of unfortified bomas. None of the landscape and habitat variables tested appeared to strongly drive the spatial patterns of spotted hyena raids in livestock bomas. Livestock boma fortification is cost‐effectiveness strategy to promote carnivores and human coexistence.