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Throughout the life cycle of mushrooms, countless spores are released from the fruiting bodies. The spores have significant implications in the food and medicine industries due to pharmacological effects attributed to their bioactive ingredients. Moreover, high concentration of mushroom spores can induce extrinsic allergic reactions in mushroom cultivation workers. Therefore, it is important to study the bioactive ingredients of medicinal mushroom spores and molecular mechanisms of spore formation to develop healthcare products utilizing medicinal mushroom spores and breed sporeless/low- or high-spore-producing strains. This review summarizes the bioactive compounds of mushroom spores, the influence factors and molecular mechanisms of spore formation. Many bioactive compounds extracted from mushroom spores have a wide range of pharmacological activities. Several exogenous factors such as temperature, humidity, light, nutrients, and culture matrix, and endogenous factors such as metabolism-related enzymes activities and expression levels of genes related to sporulation individually or in combination affect the formation, size, and discharge of spores. The future research directions are also discussed for supplying references to analyze the bioactive compounds of spores and the molecular mechanisms of spore formation in mushrooms.

The well-characterized edible and medicinal bamboo mushroom is Phallus indusiatus , a Chinese bamboo mushroom with long white indusium (skirt). To date, scientists have found more than five species of bamboo mushrooms in Thailand, containing bamboo mushrooms with long white, short white, and several colored skirts. Still, most of them are unidentified species and lack metabolic profile data. Hence, this study aims to evaluate the species of the long white-skirt Chinese bamboo mushroom-like (CH-isolate) and short white-skirt (TH-isolate) bamboo mushrooms isolated from a local farm in northern Thailand. External morphology and molecular identification were used to identify the species. Nutritional and metabolic studies were conducted to determine the nutrients and metabolites from both isolates. Our morphological and evolutionary phylogenetic analyses suggested that CH- and TH-isolates were different species. Interestingly, the CH-isolate, which has a similar morphology to P . indusiatus , clearly demonstrated the difference in species. In addition, the nutritional and metabolomic analysis revealed that CH- and TH-isolate contain different nutritional constituents and metabolic profiles. Our study reports the two new species of bamboo mushrooms that were suspected to be found in Thailand and their metabolic profiles that could be beneficially used in further studies. However, definitive confirmation of the novel species will be made in the future.

Background Atrazine is one of the most widespread chlorinated herbicides, leaving large bulks in soils and groundwater. The biodegradation of atrazine by bacteria is well described, but many aspects of the fungal metabolism of this compound remain unclear. Thus, we investigated the toxicity and degradation of atrazine by 13 rainforest basidiomycete strains. Results In liquid medium, Pluteus cubensis SXS320, Gloelophyllum striatum MCA7, and Agaricales MCA17 removed 30, 37, and 38%, respectively, of initial 25 mg L − 1 of the herbicide within 20 days. Deficiency of nitrogen drove atrazine degradation by Pluteus cubensis SXS320; this strain removed 30% of atrazine within 20 days in a culture medium with 2.5 mM of N, raising three metabolites; in a medium with 25 mM of N, only 21% of initial atrazine were removed after 40 days, and two metabolites appeared in culture extracts. This is the first report of such different outcomes linked to nitrogen availability during the biodegradation of atrazine by basidiomycetes. The herbicide also induced synthesis and secretion of extracellular laccases by Datronia caperata MCA5, Pycnoporus sanguineus MCA16, and Polyporus tenuiculus MCA11. Laccase levels produced by of P. tenuiculus MCA11 were 13.3-fold superior in the contaminated medium than in control; the possible role of this enzyme on atrazine biodegradation was evaluated, considering the strong induction and the removal of 13.9% of the herbicide in vivo. Although 88% of initial laccase activity remained after 6 h, no evidence of in vitro degradation was observed, even though ABTS was present as mediator. Conclusions This study revealed a high potential for atrazine biodegradation among tropical basidiomycete strains. Further investigations, focusing on less explored ligninolytic enzymes and cell-bound mechanisms, could enlighten key aspects of the atrazine fungal metabolism and the role of the nitrogen in the process.

This study describes four gray or brown species of Cuphophyllus (Hygrophoraceae, Agaricales), two of them new species, restricted to arctic-alpine and northern boreal zones of North America, and relates them morphologically and phylogenetically using multigene and nuc rDNA internal transcribed spacer ITS1-5.8S-ITS (ITS barcode) analyses to their similar, known counterparts. Cuphophyllus cinerellus, epitypified here, is shown to be a pan-palearctic species with sequence-confirmed collections from Fennoscandia and easternmost Asia. Occupying a similar habitat in the Nearctic is its sister species, the morphologically similar but novel C. esteriae, so far known only from eastern North America, including Greenland. Sister to the C. cinerellus-C. esteriae lineage, and known only from boreal raised Sphagnum bogs in Newfoundland, is a new medium-sized light cinereous brown species, C. lamarum. It has a yellow stipe but is phylogenetically distant from the yellow-stiped European C. flavipes and its North American sister species, Hygrophorus pseudopallidus. As cryptic speciation was discovered within C. flavipes, we lecto- and epitypify the name and transfer H. pseudopallidus to Cuphophyllus based on ITS analysis of the holotype. We also transfer the small European Hygrocybe comosa to Cuphophyllus based on morphology. Cuphophyllus hygrocyboides is reported from North America with the first sequence-confirmed collections from arctic-alpine British Columbia and Greenland. In addition, sequencing the holotype of C. subviolaceus identifies it as the sister species to the putative C. lacmus. Both species seem to have an intercontinental distribution. In total, we add new sequences to GenBank from 37 Cuphophyllus collections, including the holotypes of C. hygrocyboides and C. subviolaceus, the two new epitypes, and the two novel species.

The large genus Leucoagaricus (Basidiomycota) is poorly studied in Pakistan, where the northern parts of the country are considered hot spots for biodiversity. Based on morphological and molecular data, five new species are described: Leucoagaricus badius, L. lahorensiformis, L. pakistaniensis, L. sultanii, and L. umbonatus. Descriptions and illustrations are given for the new taxa. A phylogeny based on morphology and four DNA regions, including the internal transcribed spacers (ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 = ITS) and D1-D2 domains of the 28S gene of the nuc rDNA, the gene for RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2), and the translation elongation factor 1-α gene (TEF1-α), shows that the new taxa are clustered in a clade representing Leucoagaricus section Rubrotincti subgenus Sericeomyces.

Pleurotus ostreatus is the second most cultivated edible mushroom worldwide after Agaricus bisporus. It has economic and ecological values and medicinal properties. Mushroom culture has moved toward diversification with the production of other mushrooms. Edible mushrooms are able to colonize and degrade a large variety of lignocellulosic substrates and other wastes which are produced primarily through the activities of the agricultural, forest, and food-processing industries. Particularly, P. ostreatus requires a shorter growth time in comparison to other edible mushrooms. The substrate used for their cultivation does not require sterilization, only pasteurization, which is less expensive. Growing oyster mushrooms convert a high percentage of the substrate to fruiting bodies, increasing profitability. P. ostreatus demands few environmental controls, and their fruiting bodies are not often attacked by diseases and pests, and they can be cultivated in a simple and cheap way. All this makes P. ostreatus cultivation an excellent alternative for production of mushrooms when compared to other mushrooms.

Despite the recent molecular systematic analyses of the Entolomataceae (Agaricales, Basidiomycota), a robust classification of genera supported by morphological and phylogenetic evidence remains unresolved for this cosmopolitan family of pink-spored fungi. Here, a phylogenetic analysis for one of the two major clades (Rhodocybe-Clitopilus) was conducted using three nuclear protein-coding gene regions, the mitochondrial ATP synthase subunit 6 (atp6), the nuclear RNA polymerase subunit II (rpb2) and the nuclear translation elongation factor subunit 1-α (tef1). Five monophyletic groups are resolved with strong statistical support and a set of morphological features for delineation of genera is presented. In the revised classification proposed here, Clitopilus is retained, Rhodocybe is emended, two genera previously accepted as synonyms of Rhodocybe (Clitopilopsis and Rhodophana) are resurrected and Clitocella is described as new.

Restriction-enzyme (RE)-based next-generation sequencing methods have revolutionized marker-assisted genetic studies; however, the use of REs has limited their widespread adoption, especially in field samples with low-quality DNA and/or small quantities of DNA. Here, we developed a PCR-based procedure to construct reduced representation libraries without RE digestion steps, representing de novo single-nucleotide polymorphism discovery and its genotyping using next-generation sequencing. Using multiplexed inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) primers, thousands of genome-wide regions were amplified effectively from a wide variety of genomes, without prior genetic information. We demonstrated: 1) Mendelian gametic segregation of the discovered variants; 2) reproducibility of genotyping by checking its applicability for individual identification; and 3) applicability in a wide variety of species by checking standard population genetic analysis. This approach, called multiplexed ISSR genotyping by sequencing, should be applicable to many marker-assisted genetic studies with a wide range of DNA qualities and quantities.

We studied the South American species of Cortinarius section Thaumasti based on morphological and molecular data. Members of this group can easily be identified in the field because the basidiomata are small and Phlegmacium-like with a bulbous stipe and the universal veil in most species forms a distinct volva at the base of the stipe. The phylogenetic delimitation of the clade was mostly in concordance with the earlier, morphology-based grouping of the South American taxa except that C. chrysophaeus was resolved outside of the clade. Altogether nine species were recognized in the section. Four species, C. chlorophanus, C. coleopus, C. cosmoxanthus, and C. vaginatus, were previously described by other authors, whereas three species, C. chlorosplendidus, C. olivaceovaginatus, and C. subcosmoxanthus, are described here as new. We were able to identify two remaining taxa, but we do not have sufficient morphological data to allow for a formal description. All of the species in C. section Thaumasti form ectomycorrhizal associations with Nothofagaceae. They have been documented from South America and New Zealand. The Patagonian species are considered endemic to the region. A key to the described species is provided.

Within the family Entolomataceae, many reports of Entoloma and Rhodocybe have been published, but few reports on Clitopilus and allied genera are available. In this study, Clitopilus, Clitocella, and Clitopilopsis from China were studied by morphological and phylogenetic methods. Portions of nuc 28S rDNA (28S), RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (rpb2), translation elongation factor 1-alpha (tef1), and ATPase subunit 6 (atp6), were employed to elucidate the relationships of Clitopilus and allies. Results indicate that Clitopilus should be divided into three sections, namely, sect. Clitopilus, sect. Scyphoides, and sect. Crispi, the last of which is newly described. In total, 17 species of Clitopilus, Clitocella, and Clitopilopsis are found in China; 14 species belong to Clitopilus, of which 5 are new: C. yunnanensis, C. brunniceps, C. rugosiceps, C. sinoapalus, and C. umbilicatus. Two species of Clitocella, including one new species, Clitocella orientalis, are described. One new species of Clitopilopsis, namely, Clitopilopsis albida, is proposed.