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In the last few decades, the Limpopo River Basin (LRB) has experienced a number of extreme rainfall events which were responsible for considerable socio-economic and environmental impacts. Most of the population here is poor and dependent on rain-fed agriculture. In order to better understand these events over the LRB, CHIRPS, 0.05° gridded rainfall data are used to identify the daily extreme events, analyse their interannual variability and examine relationships with large scale climate modes over the 1981–2016 period. Analysis of the top 20 events suggests a pattern with rainfall generally decreasing from the eastern to western parts of the basin. Typically, the highest rainfall amounts occur over the regions where there are steep topographical gradients between the mountainous regions of northeastern South Africa and the Mozambican floodplains. Almost half of the top 200 extreme events are associated with tropical extra-tropical cloud bands (48%), with tropical low-pressure systems (28%), Mesoscale Convective Systems (14%), and cut-off lows (10%) in the mid-upper atmosphere, also making sizeable contributions. The monthly distribution of the events showed that most of the events occurred during the late summer months (January–March) when tropical lows and cloud bands are more common. On interannual time-scales, most of the summers with above average number of events coincide with La Niña conditions and, to lesser extent, a positive subtropical South Indian Ocean Dipole.

The opportunity of sheep reared by communal and smallholder farmers to contribute to the growth of the livestock industry in South Africa is untapped. This study aimed to describe the socioeconomic characteristics of these sheep producers, identify their production systems, and describe the constraints that impede the productive expansion of these sheep farming systems in Limpopo Province. The data were collected from one hundred and twenty sheep farmers using a structured questionnaire. The findings revealed that in communal and smallholder sheep systems, there were more male than female farmers (78%), 48% were over the age of 60, 37% and 43% had secondary and tertiary degrees, 74% were full-time sheep farmers and 69% had 10 years or less of sheep farming experience. The flocks sizes differed significantly (P ≤ 0.01) within the production systems, with average sizes of 25 and 63 under the communal and smallholder systems, respectively. Indigenous crossbreeds were the common breed reared under an extensive system, with only 14% of communal farmers rearing pure breeds under an intensive system. The problem confrontation index indicated that feed shortages, diseases, predation, lack of technical knowledge and stock theft were the top five production constraints in these production systems. The study confirmed the need to develop support programs which will mitigate these constraints and improve productivity.

The adoption of climate-smart irrigation technologies amongst smallholder farmers generally remains low beside their role in combating food and nutrition security in a society and in climate change adaptation strategies. This study identified the factors influencing smallholder farmers’ decision to adopt Climate Smart Irrigation Technologies (CSIT) in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. Data were collected through the completion of a face-to-face structured questionnaire by 100 smallholder farmers selected through convenience and purposive sampling. A probit regression and OLS model were used to identify factors that influence the smallholder farmer’s decision to adopt CSIT and the level of adoption. The results indicated that only 46% of the smallholder farmers adopted climate-smart irrigation technologies and suggested that adoption is influenced positively by factors such as gender, age, district, farm size, staple food production and knowledge on CSIT. There is an urgent need for related stakeholders to transform the smallholder farmer subsector through improved extension services, training, adopting resilient crop varieties, promoting underutilized and nutrient-dense crops adapted to harsh local conditions, and other interventions. This should be done by promoting awareness to smallholder farmers regarding these interventions and new technologies that have the potential to improve rural livelihoods and enhance resilience and adaptation.

Background Despite the strong commitment at both national and international levels to eradicate hunger and achieve household food security, by 2030 food insecurity remains a public health problem. South Africa is amongst the countries with the highest rate of income inequality in the world and extremely high levels of absolute poverty. The Gini coefficient in South Africa is estimated at 0.68 Although South Africa may be food secure at a national level, large numbers of households within the country are food insecure approximately 52% of the rural households in Limpopo Province of South Africa were considered severely food insecure. It has been noted that the majority of households in South African informal settlements and rural areas were moderately or severely food insecure due to lack of access to food which was directly related to income. Rural areas have assets that can be explored to support households. The adult population above 18 years in South Africa make up 78% of the 5.9 million population with about 40% living in rural areas, this study explored household food insecurity in adults in rural environments. The current study aimed to explore the socioeconomic and dietary determinants of household food insecurity among the adult population in the Limpopo Province. Methods A cross-sectional survey design was used, and data were collected using a validated pre-tested questionnaire. The participants were recruited from households in Limpopo province. Multiple linear regression was computed to explore the influence of socioeconomic and dietary practices on food insecurity. Results The study included 699 randomly selected participants of which the majority earned a monthly income ≤ 3000 ZAR, and 31.8% experiencing hunger in the past 30 days at the time of study. The dietary practices of the participants were found to be associated with household food insecurity. The study found that large family size, being female in South Africa, low household income and low rate of regular breakfast intake were significant determinants of household food insecurity ( p  < 0.05). Conclusion In summary, most of the households were poor and approximately one-third were food insecure. The implementation of sustainable employment policies, and food-based approaches and targeting rural household food production could significantly reduce food insecurity in the rural area.

This paper investigates the factors that drive farmers’ simultaneous adoption of six water conservation practices (WCPs) and the intensity of their adoption. We estimate farmers’ adoption of these WCPs with a multivariate probit model, and for the intensity of their adoption, an ordered probit model is estimated. Our results show that gender, age, education, and farm size (among other factors) influence the probability and extent of adoption of WCPs. Furthermore, combinations like drip and/or sprinkler irrigations and cover cropping, drip and/or sprinkler irrigations and intercropping (among others) are complements, suggesting the bundling of these WCPs.

The objective of this study is to identify the perceptions of the conspicuous rural livestock farmers as well as the officials from the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF) on the effects of climate change on rural livestock farming practices. From a qualitative standpoint, this study purposively selected participants from Limpopo Province, focusing on Giyani, Lenting, Ga-Mphahlele and Malamulele areas comprising of rural livestock farmers [12:3 = 36] and DAFF officials [6:2]. Overall, 42 participants formed part of this study through Face-to-Face and Focus Group Discussions. It is found that the loss and damage related to the contrary effects of climate change are insufficiently applied in the chosen rural areas of Limpopo Province. The local and regional collaborations by the responsible spheres of government are not strengthened and promoted, leading to inefficient strategies and approaches to addressing related conditions. Therefore, the significance of risk transmission and dissemination via regional cooperation regarding climate change adaptation are pivotal in rural settings.

Food insecurity is a comprehensive challenge. Food, being one of the most basic human needs, has become one of the most important concerns in the world, as more people are living in poverty and are vulnerable to food insecurity. Food insecurity levels vary across sectors, meaning that policy recommendations to address the problem have to be in specific contexts. Farmworkers in irrigation schemes are a sub-group that has received little attention in research regarding food security outcomes. This paper provides evidence of a study that was carried out to analyze food security among irrigation scheme farmworkers who either rent or do not rent irrigation plots from their employers in the Tshiombo Irrigation Scheme, Limpopo Province. Data were collected from 191 randomly selected farmworkers. The Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) was utilized to determine the extent of food security among the irrigation scheme farmworkers. Data were analyzed using the ordered probit model. Among the variables considered in the model, land size (p < 0.05), land leasing (p < 0.01), total household expenditure (p < 0.05), and food stored by farmworkers (p < 0.1) were found to significantly influence irrigation farmworkers’ food security status. These findings suggest that policymakers should design policies that encourage stakeholders from NGOs, and private and public sectors to train and provide resources that will enable and develop livelihood skills among farmworkers.

Anthelmintic treatment is the most common way of controlling nematode infections in ruminants even though several countries have reported anthelmintic resistance (AR), resulting in limitation for sustainable small ruminant production. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the knowledge of resource-poor sheep farmers in Limpopo province of South Africa on the use of anthelmintics. A questionnaire regarding helminthosis control practices was administered to small ruminant farmers in five districts of Limpopo province namely Capricorn, Sekhukhune, Waterberg, Vhembe, and Mopani. A total of 77 resource-poor farmers were interviewed between June and August of 2017 using a structured questionnaire with a combination of qualitative and quantitative open-ended questions. The interviewed farmers were divided into three groups based on their farming experience (< 5; 6–10, and ˃ 10 years of farming experience). Limited farming experience was shown as one of the risks, as farmers that owned sheep for less than 10 years could not identify the symptoms of gastrointestinal parasites infection and did not know how nematodes are transmitted to animals. However, no significant difference (p < 0.05) was found to exist between the three groups of farmers in terms of clinical signs identification and correct application of anthelmintics. About 43% of the respondents were unaware of gastrointestinal nematodes (GI) that infect sheep, could not identify the clinical symptoms of gastrointestinal nematodes infection, and only 34% knew how animals become infected. Although 67.5% of farmers mentioned that they never dose their sheep, 32.5% use anthelmintics at varying times in a year. None of the farmers weighed their sheep before dosing them instead visual appraisal of individual weight was the most common means of estimating the anthelmintic dose. The above information is an indication of risks associated with possible occurrence of anthelmintic resistance in the study areas. There is therefore, a need to give training to resource-poor farmers of small stock on proper application of anthelmintic treatment and to educate them on how to prevent development of AR. Future studies on AR should also be conducted in the province in flocks with high-treatment frequencies to establish the occurrence of AR using both in vivo and in vitro methods. The most common risk factor associated with the occurrence of AR in all the five districts of Limpopo province was found to be the use of anthelmintics without weighing the animals to determine the correct dosage.

Foods and foodways are closely connected to social processes and activities. The functions of ceramic vessels in transporting, storing, processing, and serving food are tied to these social processes. Vessel functions can thus provide direct evidence of social activities. This article presents the results of a functional analysis of ceramic vessels from Schroda, a tenth- to eleventh-century farming settlement located in the middle Limpopo Valley, South Africa. Physical attributes such as vessel form, size, surface treatment, and sooting are considered in conjunction with ethnographic sources and comparative archaeological data to identify vessel functions and how these might relate to different activity areas across the site. Continuity and change in vessel use between the site’s Zhizo- and Leokwe-phase deposits are also discussed.