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Amdoparvoviruses infect various carnivores, including mustelids, canids, skunks, and felids. Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) belongs to the prototypical species Amdoparvovirus carnivoran1. Here, we identified a novel amdoparvovirus in farmed Asian badgers (Meles meles), and we named this virus \"Meles meles amdoparvovirus\" (MMADV). A total of 146 clinical samples were collected from 134 individual badgers, and 30.6% (41/134) of the sampled badgers tested positive for amdoparvovirus by PCR. Viral DNA was detected in feces, blood, spleen, liver, lung, and adipose tissue from these animals. Viral sequences from eight samples were determined, five of which represented nearly full-length genome sequences (4,237-4,265 nt). Six serum samples tested positive by PCR, CIEP, and IAT, four of which had high antibody titers (> 512) against AMDV-G. Twenty-six of the 41 amdoparvovirus-positive badgers showed signs of illness, and necropsy revealed lesions in their organs. Sequence comparisons and phylogenetic analysis of the viral NS1 and VP2 genes of these badger amdoparvoviruses showed that their NS1 proteins shared 62.6%-88.8% sequence identity with known amdoparvoviruses, and they clustered phylogenetically into two related clades. The VP2 proteins shared 76.6%-97.2% identity and clustered into two clades, one of which included raccoon dog and arctic fox amdoparvovirus (RFAV), and the other of which did not include other known amdoparvoviruses. According to the NS1-protein-based criterion for parvovirus species demarcation, the MMADV isolate from farm YS should be classified as a member of a new species of the genus Amdoparvovirus. In summary, we have discovered a novel MMADV and other badger amdoparvoviruses that naturally infect Asian badgers and are possibly pathogenic in badgers.

Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) is known to cause the most significant disease in the mink industry. It is globally widespread and manifested as a deadly plasmacytosis and hyperglobulinemia. So far, measures to control the viral spread have been limited to manual serological testing for AMDV-positive mink. Further, due to the persistent nature of this virus, attempts to eradicate Aleutian disease (AD) have largely failed. Therefore, effective strategies to control the viral spread are of crucial importance for wildlife protection. One potentially key tool in the fight against this disease is by the immunization of mink against AMDV. Throughout many years, several researchers have tried to develop AMDV vaccines and demonstrated varying degrees of protection in mink by those vaccines. Despite these attempts, there are currently no vaccines available against AMDV, allowing the continuation of the spread of Aleutian disease. Herein, we summarize previous AMDV immunization attempts in mink as well as other preventative measures with the purpose to shed light on future studies designing such a potentially crucial preventative tool against Aleutian disease.

Background: Advances in American mink (Neogale vison) genomics have identified candidate genes linked to disease resistance, including RNF165, which is involved in immune response and virus–host interactions. Objectives: This study aimed to characterize genetic variation within the RNF165 (Ring Finger Protein 165) gene in farmed and wild mink to identify polymorphisms potentially associated with resistance to Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV). Methods: Two groups of mink were analyzed: farmed animals from Latvia (n = 50) and wild animals (n = 20) from Poland. The presence of viral DNA was verified by PCR amplification targeting the VP2 and NS1 viral protein genes. To assess polymorphism within RNF165, primers spanning eight exons were designed, optimized, and applied in PCR amplification. PCR products were sequenced and subjected to bioinformatic analysis. Results: Two single nucleotide polymorphisms were identified: a synonymous substitution at c.G141A and a missense mutation c.G596A (p.R199K). Both variants were present in farmed and wild populations; however, the G allele at position c.141 was nearly twice as frequent in farmed mink compared to wild mink (p < 0.05). In silico functional prediction (SNAP2) indicated that the p.R199K mutation may moderately affect RNF165 protein function. Conclusions: Owing to its high conservation and role in immune regulation, RNF165 may serve as a promising candidate gene for molecular selection in breeding programs aimed at enhancing resistance to Aleutian mink disease (AMD).

Invasive alien species pose a major threat to ecosystems by outcompeting native species for resources, altering habitats, enabling potential genetic hybridisation and introducing pathogens into the environment. An understanding of the factors that determine virus transfer between invasive and native species is crucial to the mitigation of the negative impact of the pathogens introduced. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of factors influencing Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV) infection in native mustelids in Poland, following its introduction by feral American mink. AMDV seroprevalence in American mink varied spatially from 0 in the central and southern regions to 0.8 in the northern regions. Antibodies to AMDV were detected in all six studied mustelids, including a novel finding in weasels. AMDV seroprevalence in other mustelids correlated positively with its occurrence in American mink, and reached 0.54 in areas with the highest mink AMDV seroprevalence. Furthermore, in native mustelids, more closely phylogenetically related to mink, AMDV seroprevalence was higher (0.68 in polecats and weasels) compared to more distantly related species (0.37 in badgers). Over the 27‐year study period, AMDV seroprevalence in mustelids has increased from 0.04 to 0.60, despite a decline in seroprevalence in feral mink in subsequent years. These findings suggest that the spread of viral infections as a result of the introduction of invasive species could affect mustelid species and may intensify over time.

Background Aleutian mink disease, mink viral enteritis and canine distemper are known as the three most serious diseases that cause great economic loss in the mink industry. In clinical practice, aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV), mink enteritis virus (MEV) and canine distemper virus (CDV) are common mixed infections, and they have similar clinical clinical signs, such as diarrhoea. Therefore, a rapid and accurate differential diagnosis method for use on mink ranches is essential for the control of these three pathogens. Here, we developed multiplex one-step real-time quantitative PCR (RT‒qPCR) assays for the simultaneous detection and quantification of AMDV, MEV and CDV by using three primers and probes based on the conserved NS1, VP2 and N genes, respectively. Results The results showed that the established method can not cross-react with other mink pathogens, with a detection sensitivity of 25 copies/µL and a coefficient of variation less than 3.51%. Moreover, the interference experiment showed that the presence of AMDV, MEV and CDV templates at different concentrations would not interfere with the detection results. Furthermore, two hundred clinical samples of mink with diarrhoea were simultaneously analysed using multiplex RT‒qPCR and single RT‒qPCR, the Kappa values were all greater than 0.921, indicating that there was a high degree of coincidence between the two detection methods. Conclusions In conclusion, multiplex RT‒qPCR exhibited high specificity, sensitivity, and reproducibility, indicating that this method can be used as a reliable and specific tool for the differential detection and quantification of AMDV, MEV and CDV.

Aleutian disease (AD) is a devastating infectious disease in American mink ( Neogale vison ) industry caused by Aleutian mink disease virus (AMDV). Two crucial steps toward controlling infectious diseases in farm animals are: (i) assessment of the infection risk factors to minimize the likelihood of infection and (ii) selection of animals with superior immune responses against pathogens to build tolerant farms. This study aimed to investigate AD risk factors and evaluate a novel “ImmunAD” approach for genetic improvement of AD tolerance. Phenotypic records and pedigree information of 1,366 and 24,633 animals were included in this study. The risk of animal’s age, sex, color type, and year of sampling on AMDV infection was assessed using a logistic regression model and counter immune-electrophoresis (CIEP) test results. ImmunAD phenotype was calculated based on AMDVG enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and CIEP test results, and breeding values for ImmunAD were estimated using an animal model. Animals were classified into high-coordinated (HCIR), average-coordinated (ACIR), and low-coordinated immune responders (LCIR) using ImmunAD’s breeding values, and the impact of selection of HCIR on live grade of pelt quality (PQ), harvest weight (HW), and harvest length (HL) breeding values were evaluated. Age of > 1 year, male sex, and year of sampling were identified as significant risk factors of AD (p < 0.05). A moderate-to-high heritability (0.55±0.07) was estimated for ImmunAD, while a higher heritability was observed among the CIEP-positive animals (0.76±0.06). Significantly higher breeding values were observed for PQ and HL among HCIR than those for LCIR and ACIR (p < 0.05). Our findings indicate the critical role of male breeders in AD distribution within mink farms. Regular screening of AD in male breeders before pairing them with females during breeding seasons can help disease control. ImmunAD strategy can be applied to genetic improvement of AD tolerance, with favorable impacts on some growth and production traits. Higher genetic gains can be achieved in populations with higher AD seroprevalences.

Aleutian mink disease (AD) is a chronic viral infection that causes autoimmune disorders in minks and presents a significant economic burden on mink farming. Despite the substantial challenges presented by AD, no effective vaccine is available and only partial protection has been achieved. We constructed a whole-gene nucleic acid vaccine from an isolated virulent Aleutian mink disease virus (ADV) strain (pcDNA3.1-ADV). Based on this whole-gene nucleic acid vaccine, we generated truncated mutant constructs by removing portions of the ADV VP2 gene using overlap extension polymerase chain reaction. pcDNA3.1-ADV-428 lacks nucleotides encoding VP2 amino acid residues 428–466, and pcDNA3.1-ADV-428–487 harbors additional deletion of nucleotides coding for VP2 amino acid residues 487–501. We also generated nucleic acid vaccines for the ADV NS1 gene, truncated ADV NS1 gene, ADV VS2 gene, and truncated ADV VS2 gene: pcDNA3.1-NS1, pcDNA3.1-NS1-D, pcDNA3.1-VP2, and pcDNA3.1-VP2-D, respectively. The immunogenicity of the seven DNA vaccines was confirmed by immunofluorescent evaluation. Sixty female minks were divided into 10 groups: seven groups were immunized with the DNA vaccines, one control group was injected with phosphate-buffered saline, one group was immunized with pcDNA3.1 empty vector, and one group was immunized with inactivated ADV-G virus. ADV antibody levels, percentage of CD8 + cells in blood, and levels of γ -globulin and circulating immune complexes in the serum were evaluated longitudinally over 36 weeks after ADV challenge. Minks that were immunized with the pcDNA3.1-ADV-428–487 nucleic acid vaccine produced ADV antibodies. After ADV challenge, the minks immunized with pcDNA3.1-ADV-428–487 nucleic acid vaccine had lower γ -globulin content and lower CIC in serum compared to other immunization groups. Although the pcDNA3.1-ADV-428–487 nucleic acid vaccine did not demonstrate complete protection against ADV, it demonstrated marked efficacy and could potentially be used as a vaccine to prevent losses in mink populations due to ADV. Discovery of effective means to vaccinate mink against ADV will not only improve overall health of mink populations but will also reduce the economic impact of ADV.

Amdoparvoviruses, encompassing the well-characterized Aleutian mink disease viruses (AMDV) as well as less investigated viruses infecting both captive and wild animals, are important carnivoran viruses that are significant pathogens in the mink farming industry. We investigated the molecular epidemiology of amdoparvoviruses among Danish wildlife. Spleen samples from 118 animals of seven carnivoran species were screened with a pan-amdoparvovirus PCR, and the identified viruses were molecularly characterized. In one of five European badgers (Meles meles), we identified an AMDV-3 strain whose ancestors were likely of farmed mink origin. This virus was last reported on a mink farm in 2002, demonstrating how farm-derived viruses have established themselves among wildlife. We also discovered and fully characterized a novel virus found in five of 81 (6.2%) foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and one of five badgers (20.0%), which we named fox and badger amdoparvovirus 1 (FBAV-1). FBAV-1 fulfills the criteria for classification as a novel species and phylogenetically is positioned as an intermediate between the North American and Eurasian amdoparvoviral clades. This study provides baseline data and expands our understanding of amdoparvoviral ecology. Further studies including more animals across diverse geographic areas are warranted to clarify amdoparvovirus epidemiology, spread, cross-species transmission, epidemic potential, and evolutionary paths.

Background Aleutian Mink Disease (AMD) is an infectious disease of mink ( Neovison vison) and globally a major cause of economic losses in mink farming. The disease is caused by Aleutian Mink Disease Virus (AMDV) that belongs to the genus Amdoparvovirus within the Parvoviridae family. Several strains have been described with varying virulence and the severity of infection also depends on the host’s genotype and immune status. Clinical signs include respiratory distress in kits and unthriftiness and low quality of the pelts. The infection can also be subclinical. Systematic control of AMDV in Danish mink farms was voluntarily initiated in 1976. Over recent decades the disease was mainly restricted to the very northern part of the country (Northern Jutland), with only sporadic outbreaks outside this region. Most of the viruses from this region have remained very closely related at the nucleotide level for decades. However, in 2015, several outbreaks of AMDV occurred at mink farms throughout Denmark, and the sources of these outbreaks were not known. Methods Partial NS1 gene sequencing, phylogenetic analyses data were utilized along with epidemiological to determine the origin of the outbreaks. Results The phylogenetic analyses of partial NS1 gene sequences revealed that the outbreaks were caused by two different clusters of viruses that were clearly different from the strains found in Northern Jutland. These clusters had restricted geographical distribution, and the variation within the clusters was remarkably low. The outbreaks on Zealand were epidemiologically linked and a close sequence match was found to two virus sequences from Sweden. The other cluster of outbreaks restricted to Jutland and Funen were linked to three feed producers (FP) but secondary transmissions between farms in the same geographical area could not be excluded. Conclusion This study confirmed that partial NS1 sequencing can be used in outbreak tracking to determine major viral clusters of AMDV. Using this method, two new distinct AMDV clusters with low intra-cluster sequence diversity were identified, and epidemiological data helped to reveal possible ways of viral introduction into the affected herds.

Many endemic viruses circulate in populations without hosts showing visible signs of disease, while still having the potential to alter host survival or reproduction. Aleutian Mink Disease Virus (AMDV) circulates in many American mink ( Neogale vison ) populations in its native and introduced ranges. In this study, we analysed how AMDV infection in female American mink affects the reproduction of a feral population. Females infected with AMDV delivered significantly smaller litters (5.8 pups) than uninfected females (6.3 pups), meaning their litter size was reduced by 8%. Larger females and yearling females had larger litters than smaller and older females. There were no significant differences in whole litter survival between infected and uninfected females; however, offspring survival until September or October within litters of infected females was 14% lower than that within those of uninfected females. This negative link between infection and reproductive output means that Aleutian disease could seriously affect the wild mink population. This study increases our understanding of the threats posed by the spread of viruses to wildlife from farm animals or humans, highlighting that viruses circulating in wildlife, even in the absence of clinical manifestation, can be important drivers of population dynamics in wildlife.