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The tropical ginger genus Amomum (Zingiberaceae) has always posed challenges for classification based on morphological characters. Previous molecular phylogenetic studies showed Amomum to be paraphyletic but limited sampling and absence of the data of the type Amomum subulatum made it impossible to resolve the paraphyly and make nomenclatural changes. Here, Amomum is further investigated in a multi-marker phylogenetic framework using matK and nrITS including multiple accessions of the type, the genus Elettaria and additional accessions of Amomum, Alpinia, Elettariopsis, Geocharis, Geostachys and Hornstedtia. Amomum is shown to consist of nine clades and Alpinia of six. The genera Elettaria, Elettariopsis, Plagiostachys, and species in Hornstedtia are nested within these clades. Morphological studies of species previously subsumed in Amomum support recognition of new genera that correspond to well-delimited clades in the phylogenetic framework presented here. Recircumscription of the paraphyletic genus Amomum facilitates identification and creates nomenclatural stability. Three genera, Conamomum, Meistera and Wurfbainia, are resurrected, and three new genera Epiamomum, Lanxangia and Sundamomum are described, together with a key to the genera and a nomenclatural synopsis placing 384 specific names (incl. all synonyms) into the new generic framework. Of these 129 represent new combinations and 3 are replacement names. Types of Geocharis and Geostachys are designated. Further studies and specific sampling will be needed to resolve other branches of Alpinioideae containing other polyphyletic genera.

Black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), black cumin (Nigella sativa L.) and black cardamom (Amomum subulatum) are considered as important spices, seasoning and folk medicines. They have a diverse range of bioactive compounds, especially for polyphenolic compounds. These polyphenolic compounds contribute to the putative health benefits of these black spices. The purpose of this study was to identify, characterize and quantify the phenolic profile of these black spices using LC-ESI-QTOF/MS and HPLC–PDA and to access their antioxidant potential. The LC-ESI-QTOF/MS analysis led to the identification of 138 phenolic compounds in three black spices. In HPLC–PDA, the p-hydroxybenzoic acid was the most predominant phenolic acid in black pepper and black cumin while diosmin was the most abundant flavonoid in black cardamom (> 20 mg/g). Furthermore, black spices were systematically measured for their TPC, TFC and TTC followed by measurement of their antioxidant activities using DPPH, FRAP and ABTS assays. Black pepper showed the highest TPC, TFC, TTC, DPPH and ABTS activities as compared to other black spices while black cardamom exhibited the highest FRAP activity. The obtained results highlight the importance of these black spices as promising sources of phenolic compounds and they could be potentially utilized in food, feed and nutraceutical industries.

Large cardamom ( Amomum subulatum Roxb.) is an economically important cash crop that provides a livelihood option for the rural communities in Sikkim Himalaya. However, its production has declined drastically over the past few decades due to climate change and other factors affecting the livelihood of marginal cardamom-dependent farmers in the region. Climate change causes a shift in elevational distributions of mountain species, and it is pivotal to understand its effect on yield and yield-related traits for economically important plant species like large cardamom. For this, we randomly studied 41 large cardamom cultivation sites in Sikkim (India) with elevations ranging between 975 and 2069 m asl and evaluated the yield-related traits (number of capsules per spike, capsule length, capsule width, fresh capsule weight, dry capsule weight, number of seeds per locule, fresh seed weight, and dry seed weight) in five cultivars (Dzongu Golsey, Sawney, Seremna, Ramsey, and Varlangey). We observed a significant variability ( P  < 0.05) for morphometric traits in each of the five cultivars cultivated in different elevations. The cultivation of low-elevation cultivars like Seremna and Dzongu Golsey (suitable in elevation < 975 m) has shifted upward to mid (975–1515 m) and high-elevation (> 1515 m), while cultivation of high-elevation Ramsey cultivar (suitable in elevation > 1515 m) has shifted downward (< 1515 m). The Dzongu Golsey, Sawney, and Seremna cultivated in mid-elevation (975–1515 m) performed better in terms of yield-related traits than the same cultivars cultivated in high-elevation (> 1515 m) and showed moderate to high negative correlation between elevation and yield-related traits, indicating the negative effect of elevation on their yield. Likewise, Ramsey and Varlangey cultivated in high elevation (> 1515 m) performed better than the one cultivated in mid-elevation (975–1515 m) and depicted moderate to high positive correlation between elevation and yield-related traits, suggesting a positive influence of elevation on their yield. Although there is an elevational shift in the cultivation of large cardamom cultivars, the elevation influences the performance of the large cardamom cultivars, and it also suggests cultivating the cultivars in their suitable elevation range for better productivity.

Occurrence of cervical cancer, caused due to persistent human papilloma virus (HPV) infection, is common in women of developing countries. As the conventional treatments are expensive and associated with severe side effects, there is a need to find safer alternatives, which is affordable and less toxic to the healthy human cells. Present study aimed to evaluate the anti-HPV and apoptotic potential of four compounds from the greater cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb. var. Golsey), namely rhein, phytosphingosine, n-hexadecenoic acid and coronarin E. Their anti-HPV and apoptotic potential were studied against viral E6, E7 and few anti-apoptotic proteins of host cell (BCL2, XIAP, LIVIN) by in silico docking technique. Phytochemicals from the plant extract were analysed and identified by LC/MS and GC/MS. Involvement of the target proteins in various biological pathways was determined through KEGG. Structural optimization of the three-dimensional structures of the ligands (four phytochemicals and control drug) was done by Avogadro1.1. Receptor protein models were built using ProMod3 and other advanced tools. Pharmacophore modelling of the selected phytochemicals was performed in ZINCPharmer. Swiss ADME studies were undertaken to determine drug likeness. The ligands and proteins were digitally docked in DockThor docking program. Protein flexibility-molecular dynamic simulation helped to study protein–ligand stability in real time. Finally, the correlation of evaluated molecules was studied by the use of principal component analysis (PCA) based on the docking scores. All the ligands were found to possess apoptotic and anti-cancer activities and did not violate Lipinsky criteria. n-Hexadecanoic acid and its analogues showed maximum efficacy against the target proteins. All the protein–ligand interactions were found to be stable. The uncommon phytochemicals identified from rhizomes of greater cardamom have anti-cancer, apoptotic and HPV inhibitory potentials as analysed by docking and other in silico studies, which can be utilized in drug development after proper experimental validation.

Abstract The current study was designed to check the anthelmintic activities of some local plants. Seeds of Amomum (A.) subulatum and Vitex (V.) negundo in different solvents were subjected to in vitro (adult motility assay; AMA and egg hatch assay; EHA) and in vivo (faecal egg count reduction test; FECRT) anthelmintic activity testing protocols using Haemonchus (H.) contortus as an experimental model. The results of AMA, EHA, and FECRT were statistically analysed through linear regression and Duncan multiple range test. In AMA test, at 50 mg mL-1 concentration, the percent mortality of H. contortus was higher in A. subulatum than V. negundo, whereas, in EHA test, A. subulatum was proven better ovicidal (LC50=14.2 µg mL-1) than V. negundo (LC50= 65.7405 µg mL-1). The FECRT also indicated the better efficacy of A. subulatum than V. negundo against natural infection of gastrointestinal (GI) parasites. The crude powder of plants used in this study showed 29.6% to 57.7% anthelmintic. The reduction rate was found higher for A. subulatum (3 g kg-1) as compared to V. negundo (7 g kg-1). Reagrding efficacy analysis of solvents used for plants extract, ethyl acetate and chloroform were found better in increasing ovicidal activity in adult worms (in vitro testing), whereas, the crude aqueous methanol was found better than the crude powders in in vivo testing. It will be beneficial to document the indigenous knowledge to standard scientific procedures for their validation. This study will help to motivate the farmers to make a better choice of cultivation of the indigenous plants because of their varying efficacies as an alternative preventive approach against the GI parasitic infections. Resumo O presente estudo foi desenhado para verificar as propriedades anti-helmínticas de algumas plantas locais. Sementes de Amomum (A.) subulatum e Vitex (V.) negundo em diferentes solventes foram submetidas à análise de atividade anti-helmíntica in vitro (ensaio de motilidade de adultos; AMA e teste de eclosão de ovos; EHA) e in vivo (teste de redução da contagem de ovos nas fezes; TRCOF), usando o Haemonchus (H.) contortus como modelo experimental no protocolo de teste. Os resultados dos testes AMA, EHA e TRCOF foram analisados estatisticamente por meio de regressão linear e teste de Duncan. No teste AMA, na concentração de 50 mg mL-1, o percentual de mortalidade de H. contortus foi maior com o uso de A. subulatum do que com V. negundo, enquanto, no teste EHA, A. subulatum apresentou maior ação ovicida (LC50=14,2 µg mL- 1) do que V. negundo (LC50= 65,7405 µg mL-1). O TRCOF também indicou a melhor eficácia do uso de A. subulatum do que de V. negundo contra a infecção natural de parasitas gastrointestinais (GI). O extrato bruto seco das plantas utilizadas neste estudo apresentou 29,6% a 57,7% de atividade anti-helmíntica. A taxa de redução observada com o uso de A. subulatum (3 g kg-1) foi maior que com o uso de V. negundo (7 g kg-1). Em relação à análise da eficácia dos solventes utilizados para o extrato de plantas, o acetato de etila e o clorofórmio apresentaram maior ação ovicida em vermes adultos (testes in vitro), enquanto o extrato bruto metanólico aquoso apresentou maior eficácia do que os extratos brutos secos em testes in vivo. Consideramos vantajoso documentar o conhecimento indígena relativos aos procedimentos científicos padronizados, para sua validação. Este estudo irá servir de motivação para que os agricultores façam escolhas melhores referentes ao cultivo das plantas indígenas devido às suas diferentes eficácias comprovadas, servindo como alternativa para a abordagem preventiva contra as infecções parasitárias GI.

This research aims to study the variation in phytosociology and plant diversity of large cardamom-based traditional agroforestry systems along an altitudinal gradient (700–2000 m) in the Darjeeling Himalayas. We analyzed the changes in phytosociology and plant diversity by adopting stratified random nested quadrate sampling method. The agroforestry managers were interviewed for their perception of ecosystem service following Millennium Ecosystem Assessment guidelines. The present study showed altitudinal location significantly influences plant diversity. Overall, 130 plant species were documented, of which 37 were trees, 25 shrubs, 46 herbs, 8 ferns, 11 climbers and 3 orchids. The low-, mid- and high-altitude classes were documented with 76, 60 and 52 plant species, respectively. Overall, the study system was highly heterogeneous and diverse with a higher Shannon and Wiener diversity index of 4.09 which decreased progressively with increasing altitude as evidenced from significant negative relationship of altitude with diversity (r =− 0.582**), species richness (r =− 0.648**) and plant population (r =− 0.587**). Of the total listed plant species, about 68% were data deficit, 29% were least concerned; two species (Cryptomeria japonica and Cupressus cashmeriana) were near threatened, and one species (Brugmansia suaveolens) was extinct in the wild. This indicates that the study system plays a vital role in harbouring and conserving regional plant diversity. The plant species documented were also classified based on their ecosystem services with 120, 47, 34 and 33 species providing provisional, cultural, regulatory and supporting services, respectively.

This research presents a straightforward, effective, and eco-friendly method for the production of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs) using the dried fruit of Amomum subulatum as a reducing, stabilizing, and capping agent. The formation of AgNPs and CuONPs is supported by the presence of a surface plasmon resonance band (SPR) at 440 nm for AgNPs and 245 nm for CuONPs. Additionally, the identification of specific biomolecules responsible for the synthesis of AgNPs and CuONPs was confirmed through FTIR spectra analysis. The Transmission electron microscope (TEM) images demonstrated that AgNPs and CuONPs had spherical shapes, with mean particle diameters of 20.6 nm and 24.7 nm, respectively. X-ray diffraction and selected area electron diffraction (SAED) analyses provided evidence of the crystalline nature of the synthesized AgNPs and CuONPs. Additionally, the presence of silver and copper elements was observed through energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. Furthermore, the antibacterial activity of AgNPs was found to be superior to that of CuONPs against human pathogens such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Bacillus subtilis. The cytotoxic activity of the biosynthesized nanoparticles (NPs) was evaluated in vitro against human cervical cells (HeLa) and human breast cells (MCF-7). In MCF-7 cells, the IC50 value for AgNPs was estimated to be 39.79 µg/mL, while that of CuONPs was 83.89 µg/mL. In HeLa cells, the IC50 value for AgNPs was 45.5 µg/mL, and for CuONPs, it was 97.07 µg/mL. For the first time, an eco-friendly method for the synthesis of AgNPs and CuONPs from fruit extract of Amomum subulatum has been discussed along with their comparative evaluation study. These results highlight the promising applications of the eco-friendly synthesized AgNPs and CuONPs as effective agents against microbial infections and potential candidates for cancer therapy.

This study explored the extraction, characterization, and encapsulation of black cardamom oleoresin (BCO) for its potential applications in spices and other pharmaceutical industries. Solvent-extracted black cardamom with food-grade ethanol yielded concentrated oleoresin rich in bioactive compounds, viz., 1, 8-cineole (41.97%), α-terpineol (14.68%), α- terpinene ( 4.82%), and α-terpinyl acetate (4.70%), as confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy (GC‒MS) analysis. Freeze-drying successfully preserved the stability and quality of the encapsulated powder, with analyses confirming low moisture content (2.49–3.51%) and water activity (a w ) (0.44 to 0.52). Additional evaluation, such as powder flow property and thermal analysis, is crucial for ensuring the quality and stability of the encapsulates. Color properties, Fourier transform infrared-attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) spectroscopy, micro-Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis confirmed successful encapsulation and indicated structural changes post-encapsulation. Among the encapsulating materials employed, gum arabic (GA) exhibited the highest encapsulation efficiency at 64.71%. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) indicated good thermal stability and decomposition characteristics, as evidenced by a residual mass loss of 8.06%. Notably, oleoresin encapsulated with gum Arabic (GA) retained higher DPPH antioxidant activity (66.36 ± 1.02%) and phenolic content (80.27 ± 0.11 mg GAE/g) compared to other encapsulates. Principal component analysis (PCA) highlighted the impact of individual components on the overall quality and functionality of the encapsulated product. This work provides a valuable resource for developing encapsulated black cardamom oleoresin (BCO) with detailed studies on method of extraction and encapsulation materials to enhance the stability of oleoresin and to explore effective applications in various industries.

In this study, element content and health risk of the most popular herbs from Iran were evaluated. The samples of raw materials from 30 different herbs were purchased from the local markets of Iran. The concentration levels of some elements including macroelements (N, P, K, Ca, and Mg), micronutrients (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Na), and heavy metals (Cd, Ni, and Pb) of studied herbs were evaluated. The potential of health risks was calculated by Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), and Hazard Index (HI). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to test a hypothesis about differences between the mean values. The highest levels of Ca (20,000 ± 26.3 mg/kg), Mg (9600 ± 45.4 mg/kg), N (59,955 ± 11.55 mg/kg), P (6544 ± 20 mg/kg), and K (56,563.2 ± 18 mg/kg) were found in Zataria multiflora , Malva sylvestris , Acasia arbus , Cannabis sativa , and Amomum subulatum , respectively. In addition, the highest concentration levels of Fe (987 ± 75.27 mg/kg), Zn (1187.5 ± 10 mg/kg), Cu (64.2 ± 2 mg/kg), Mn (272.3 ± 66.62 mg/kg), and Na (2658.8 ± 20.3 mg/kg) were recorded in Bunium persicum , Peganum harmala , Papaver somniferum , Alpinia officinalis , and Cuminum cyminum , respectively. Acasia arbus , Anethum graveolens , and Malva sylvestris showed the highest concentration of Ni (6.07 ± 0.04 mg/kg), Cd (1.64 ± 0.16 mg/kg), and Pb (9.27 ± 0.25 mg/kg). Based on performed health risk assessment on the studied plants, EDI, THQ, and HI values of all of them were less than 1. This study indicated that there were several harmful elements in the herbs. The healthier plant species are those with the least concentration of Pb, Ni, and Cd, which include Vitex agnus-custus and Teucrium polium . On the other hand, the toxic plants with a higher concentration of Pb, Ni, and Cd included Malva sylvestris , Acasia arbus , and Anethum graveolens. In addition, evaluation of human risk assessment is an important factor for investigating the concentration of heavy metals harmful for human beings.

Medicinal and aromatic plants have the ability to transmit volatile allelochemicals and affect their surrounding organisms. In this regard, their interaction should also be considered. The inhibitory effects of 112 essential oils on lettuce seed and seedling were investigated by cotton swab method. Germination (G%), Mean germination time (MGT), Lethal of embryo (L%), dormancy (D%), radicle growth (R%), and hypocotyl growth (H%) were measured. Two methods were used for evaluating allelopathic interaction effects: the simplified modified dilution check-board technique (SMCT) and the isobologram. Thymus daenensis had the highest inhibitory effect on G% (IC50 = 2.9 ppm) and the most lethal effect on the embryo (LC50 = 7.2 ppm). Thymus transcaspicus, Dracocephalum moldavica, Artemisia sieberi and Amomum subulatum had the greatest effect on MGT. Ziziphora tenuior, Trachyspermum ammi and Pelargonium graveolens had the highest effect on D%. Origanum vulgare was the strongest growth inhibitor. The highest synergistic effect on G% was in A. subulatum + Mentha suaveolens, on H% was related to Perovskia abrotanoides + T. daenensis, and on R% was observed in Artemisia vulgaris + M. suaveolens. The results of this study can lead to identification of new phytotoxic compounds in EOs and control weeds more effectively.