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Soil biodiversity sustains human health and its loss can be mitigated by sustainable management. Soil biodiversity is increasingly recognized as providing benefits to human health because it can suppress disease-causing soil organisms and provide clean air, water and food. Poor land-management practices and environmental change are, however, affecting belowground communities globally, and the resulting declines in soil biodiversity reduce and impair these benefits. Importantly, current research indicates that soil biodiversity can be maintained and partially restored if managed sustainably. Promoting the ecological complexity and robustness of soil biodiversity through improved management practices represents an underutilized resource with the ability to improve human health. The importance of soil biodiversity Soils contain a rich biota, but this is threatened because of intensive agriculture and poor land management. Soil biodiversity has a key role in providing food, clean water and air, and in suppressing disease. Diana Wall, Uffe Nielsen and Johan Six review how these ecosystem services can be provided if soils are restored and managed sustainably.

Bacillus anthracis is a spore-forming, Gram-positive bacterium responsible for anthrax, an acute infection that most significantly affects grazing livestock and wild ungulates, but also poses a threat to human health. The geographic extent of B . anthracis is poorly understood, despite multi-decade research on anthrax epizootic and epidemic dynamics; many countries have limited or inadequate surveillance systems, even within known endemic regions. Here, we compile a global occurrence dataset of human, livestock and wildlife anthrax outbreaks. With these records, we use boosted regression trees to produce a map of the global distribution of B . anthracis as a proxy for anthrax risk. We estimate that 1.83 billion people (95% credible interval (CI): 0.59–4.16 billion) live within regions of anthrax risk, but most of that population faces little occupational exposure. More informatively, a global total of 63.8 million poor livestock keepers (95% CI: 17.5–168.6 million) and 1.1 billion livestock (95% CI: 0.4–2.3 billion) live within vulnerable regions. Human and livestock vulnerability are both concentrated in rural rainfed systems throughout arid and temperate land across Eurasia, Africa and North America. We conclude by mapping where anthrax risk could disrupt sensitive conservation efforts for wild ungulates that coincide with anthrax-prone landscapes. Occurrence modelling of Bacillus anthracis defines global human and animal risk of anthrax infection.

Anthrax is a serious zoonosis caused by Bacillus anthracis , which primarily affects wild herbivorous animals with spillover into humans. The disease occurs nearly worldwide but is poorly reported in Southeast Asian countries. In Vietnam, anthrax is underreported, and little is known about its temporal and spatial distributions. This paper examines the spatio-temporal distribution and epidemiological characteristics of human and livestock anthrax from Dien Bien province, Vietnam from 2010 to 2019. We also aim to define the role of livestock vaccination in reducing human cases. Historical anthrax data were collected by local human and animal health sectors in the province. Spatial rate smoothing and spatial clustering analysis, using Local Moran’s I in GeoDa and space-time scan statistic in SaTScan, were employed to address these objectives. We found temporal and spatial overlap of anthrax incidence in humans and livestock with hotspots of human anthrax in the east. We identified three significant space-time clusters of human anthrax persisting from 2010 to 2014 in the east and southeast, each with high relative risk. Most of the human cases were male (69%), aged 15–59 years (80%), involved in processing, slaughtering, or eating meat of sick or dead livestock (96.9%) but environmental and unknown exposure were reported. Animal reports were limited compared to humans and at coarser spatial scale, but in areas with human case clusters. In years when livestock vaccination was high (>~25%), human incidence was reduced, with the opposite effect when vaccine rates dropped. This indicates livestock vaccination campaigns reduce anthrax burden in both humans and livestock in Vietnam, though livestock surveillance needs immediate improvement. These findings suggest further investigation and measures to strengthen the surveillance of human and animal anthrax for other provinces of Vietnam, as well as in other countries with similar disease context.

An anthrax-causing agent, Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis , is a persistent and widespread cause of death for a broad range of mammalian hosts in a tropical rainforest, with important implications for the conservation of mammals such as chimpanzees. Anthrax threatens rainforest wildlife Anthrax is a disease that affects wildlife, livestock and humans, largely in low- and middle-income countries. To date, the disease has largely been studied in arid ecosystems, where outbreaks are commonly reported. Fabian Leendertz and colleagues study the dynamics of an anthrax-causing bacterium in a rainforest in Taï National Park, Ivory Coast, using mammal and fly samples collected over three decades. They find that anthrax is an important cause of mortality in diverse mammalian species, including chimpanzees, monkeys, duikers, mongooses and porcupines. Demographic modelling suggests that anthrax will speed up the decline of local chimpanzee populations, potentially leading to their extinction from the region. Anthrax is a globally important animal disease and zoonosis. Despite this, our current knowledge of anthrax ecology is largely limited to arid ecosystems, where outbreaks are most commonly reported 1 , 2 , 3 . Here we show that the dynamics of an anthrax-causing agent, Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis , in a tropical rainforest have severe consequences for local wildlife communities. Using data and samples collected over three decades, we show that rainforest anthrax is a persistent and widespread cause of death for a broad range of mammalian hosts. We predict that this pathogen will accelerate the decline and possibly result in the extirpation of local chimpanzee ( Pan troglodytes verus ) populations. We present the epidemiology of a cryptic pathogen and show that its presence has important implications for conservation.

Parasites can shape the foraging behaviour of their hosts through cues indicating risk of infection. When cues for risk co-occur with desired traits such as forage quality, individuals face a trade-off between nutrient acquisition and parasite exposure. We evaluated how this trade-off may influence disease transmission in a 3-year experimental study of anthrax in a guild of mammalian herbivores in Etosha National Park, Namibia. At plains zebra (Equus quagga) carcass sites we assessed (i) carcass nutrient effects on soils and grasses, (ii) concentrations of Bacillus anthracis (BA) on grasses and in soils, and (iii) herbivore grazing behaviour, compared with control sites, using motion-sensing camera traps. We found that carcass-mediated nutrient pulses improved soil and vegetation, and that BA is found on grasses up to 2 years after death. Host foraging responses to carcass sites shifted from avoidance to attraction, and ultimately to no preference, with the strength and duration of these behavioural responses varying among herbivore species. Our results demonstrate that animal carcasses alter the environment and attract grazing hosts to parasite aggregations. This attraction may enhance transmission rates, suggesting that hosts are limited in their ability to trade off nutrient intake with parasite avoidance when relying on indirect cues.

Anthrax is hyper-endemic in West Africa. Despite the effectiveness of livestock vaccines in controlling anthrax, underreporting, logistics, and limited resources makes implementing vaccination campaigns difficult. To better understand the geographic limits of anthrax, elucidate environmental factors related to its occurrence, and identify human and livestock populations at risk, we developed predictive models of the environmental suitability of anthrax in Ghana. We obtained data on the location and date of livestock anthrax from veterinary and outbreak response records in Ghana during 2005-2016, as well as livestock vaccination registers and population estimates of characteristically high-risk groups. To predict the environmental suitability of anthrax, we used an ensemble of random forest (RF) models built using a combination of climatic and environmental factors. From 2005 through the first six months of 2016, there were 67 anthrax outbreaks (851 cases) in livestock; outbreaks showed a seasonal peak during February through April and primarily involved cattle. There was a median of 19,709 vaccine doses [range: 0-175 thousand] administered annually. Results from the RF model suggest a marked ecological divide separating the broad areas of environmental suitability in northern Ghana from the southern part of the country. Increasing alkaline soil pH was associated with a higher probability of anthrax occurrence. We estimated 2.2 (95% CI: 2.0, 2.5) million livestock and 805 (95% CI: 519, 890) thousand low income rural livestock keepers were located in anthrax risk areas. Based on our estimates, the current anthrax vaccination efforts in Ghana cover a fraction of the livestock potentially at risk, thus control efforts should be focused on improving vaccine coverage among high risk groups.

Anthrax is a bacterial zoonotic disease caused by Bacillus anthracis. We qualitatively examined facilitators and barriers to responding to a potential anthrax outbreak using the capability, opportunity, motivation behaviour model (COM-B model) in the high-risk rural district of Namisindwa, in Eastern Uganda. We chose the COM-B model because it provides a systematic approach for selecting evidence-based techniques and approaches for promoting the behavioural prompt response to anthrax outbreaks. Unpacking these facilitators and barriers enables the leaders and community members to understand existing resources and gaps so that they can leverage them for future anthrax outbreaks. This was a qualitative cross-sectional study that was part of a bigger anthrax outbreak simulation study conducted in September 2023. We conducted 10 Key Informant interviews among key stakeholders. The interviews were audio recorded on Android-enabled phones and later transcribed verbatim. The transcripts were analyzed using a deductive thematic content approach through Nvivo 12. The facilitators were; knowledge of respondents about anthrax disease and anthrax outbreak response, experience and presence of surveillance guidelines, availability of resources, and presence of communication channels. The identified barriers were; porous boarders that facilitate unregulated animal trade across, lack of essential personal protective equipment, and lack of funds for surveillance and response activities. Generally, the district was partially ready for the next anthrax outbreak. The district was resourced in terms of human resources but lacked adequate funds for animal, environmental and human surveillance activities for anthrax and related response. The district technical staff had the knowledge required to respond to the anthrax outbreak but lacked adequate funds for animal, environmental and human surveillance for anthrax and related response. We think that our study findings are generalizable in similar settings and therefore call for the implementation of such periodic evaluations to help leverage the strong areas and improve other aspects. Anthrax is a growing threat in the region, and there should be proactive efforts in prevention, specifically, we recommend vaccination of livestock and further research for human vaccines.

Anthrax remains a neglected zoonotic disease of critical public and animal health significance in Zambia, particularly in regions with active human-wildlife-livestock interfaces such as the Western, Southern and Eastern provinces of Zambia. This study explores the socio-ecological drivers of anthrax transmission and examines the role of legal and illegal wildlife trade value chains in sustaining outbreaks. Secondly, the study explores the methodology used to investigate community knowledge, perceptions, and the impacts of anthrax through focus group discussions (FGDs) and a hybrid approach combining traditional thematic analysis with artificial intelligence (AI) tools. The research was framed within the interpretivist paradigm, aiming to understand shared experiences and socio-cultural contexts. The study utilized focus groups to encourage interaction and generate rich, collective insights. The hybrid approach allowed for data analysis that combined researcher-led reflexivity with AI-driven thematic analysis. Findings reveal diverse levels of awareness about anthrax, widespread misconceptions, and the influence of cultural beliefs on health behaviours. Communities linked anthrax outbreaks to interactions with wildlife and the illegal game meat trade, highlighting the complex interplay of ecological, economic, and behavioural factors in disease dynamics. Additionally, the study underscores the socioeconomic toll of anthrax, including livestock losses, disrupted livelihoods, and food insecurity, compounded by inadequate public health and veterinary responses. The insights gained from this research emphasize the need for multi-sectoral interventions tailored to the specific needs of these communities.

Bacillus cereus biovar anthracis (Bcbva) is an emergent bacterium closely related to Bacillus anthracis, the etiological agent of anthrax. The latter has a worldwide distribution and usually causes infectious disease in mammals associated with savanna ecosystems. Bcbva was identified in humid tropical forests of Côte d'Ivoire in 2001. Here, we characterize the potential geographic distributions of Bcbva in West Africa and B. anthracis in sub-Saharan Africa using an ecological niche modeling approach. Georeferenced occurrence data for B. anthracis and Bcbva were obtained from public data repositories and the scientific literature. Combinations of temperature, humidity, vegetation greenness, and soils values served as environmental variables in model calibrations. To predict the potential distribution of suitable environments for each pathogen across the study region, parameter values derived from the median of 10 replicates of the best-performing model for each pathogen were used. We found suitable environments predicted for B. anthracis across areas of confirmed and suspected anthrax activity in sub-Saharan Africa, including an east-west corridor from Ethiopia to Sierra Leone in the Sahel region and multiple areas in eastern, central, and southern Africa. The study area for Bcbva was restricted to West and Central Africa to reflect areas that have likely been accessible to Bcbva by dispersal. Model predicted values indicated potential suitable environments within humid forested environments. Background similarity tests in geographic space indicated statistical support to reject the null hypothesis of similarity when comparing environments associated with B. anthracis to those of Bcbva and when comparing humidity values and soils values individually. We failed to reject the null hypothesis of similarity when comparing environments associated with Bcbva to those of B. anthracis, suggesting that additional investigation is needed to provide a more robust characterization of the Bcbva niche. This study represents the first time that the environmental and geographic distribution of Bcbva has been mapped. We document likely differences in ecological niche-and consequently in geographic distribution-between Bcbva and typical B. anthracis, and areas of possible co-occurrence between the two. We provide information crucial to guiding and improving monitoring efforts focused on these pathogens.

Anthrax, or charbon, is a zoonotic disease caused by the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus anthracis , responsible for sporadic outbreaks and representing a significant public health issue in Peru. In this study, 18 isolates from humans, animals and soil, collected between 2005 and 2017 across different country regions, were reactivated and analyzed. We identified antimicrobial resistance genes, virulence factors, plasmids, and their phylogenetic relationships using next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics tools. We detected eight genes associated with multidrug resistance, including vanZ-F , mphL , fosB_gen , fosB , satA , bla , bla2 , and fosB2 . Additionally, 24 chromosomal virulence genes were identified, related to toxin production, capsule biosynthesis, secretion systems, and iron acquisition. Analysis of the pXO1 plasmid revealed the presence of 67 virulence-related genes, such as pagA , lef , cya , atxA , and pagR , while the pXO2 plasmid exhibited 24 genes, highlighting the cap genes associated with capsule synthesis. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all strains belong to group A, subgroup A.Br.003/004, providing valuable evidence about the evolutionary dynamics and genomic diversity of B. anthracis in Peru. These findings enhance our understanding of the genetic mechanisms involved in antimicrobial resistance and virulence, offering crucial insights for epidemiological surveillance and outbreak control.