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Objective: This study aims to explore and understand the interrelationships between cultural tourism and architectural heritage sites through tourist image and perception. These interrelationships must balance community needs, available resources, executive efforts and regional planning while protecting the environment.   Theoretical Framework: Historic buildings are considered important elements in cultural heritage, and architecture is further considered to be one of the most important aspects that attract tourists. As a significant part of cultural heritage and tourism resources, architectural heritage is the most important commemorative, secondary architectural buildings and its natural and artificial environments in ancient areas and characteristic villages.   Method: This study's method is based on mixed-method research, which is known as triangulation. This approach entailed gathering initial data, conducting interviews and surveys, and creating house maps. Traditional architectural documentation tools, such as drawings, plans, sections, elevations, and photographs, are required in all three process stages.   Results and Discussion: Bali has a diversity of forms and varieties of traditional architecture. East Bali, part of the Karangasem kingdom called puri during the Mindle era of Bali, has preserved several unique architectural masterpieces. In this context, architectural heritage is critical in increasing property values. Preserving architectural heritage is considered environmentally friendly for cultural tourism.   Research Implications: This study explores to what extent heritage architecture can be utilized as cultural heritage ideally and efficiently. This can be achieved by building sustainable restoration of archaeological and heritage sites to achieve sustainable heritage tourism.   Originality/Value: This research utilizes experiments in countries with cultural heritage to obtain lessons, values and concepts that contribute to achieving an efficient program for sustainable tourism development based on the preservation of heritage areas. Objetivo: El objetivo de la investigación es comprender y explorar las relaciones entre el turismo cultural y los sitios de patrimonio arquitectónico a través de la imagen y percepción del turista. Esto debe equilibrar las necesidades de la comunidad, los recursos disponibles, los esfuerzos ejecutivos y la planificación regional al mismo tiempo que protege el medio ambiente.  Marco Teórico: Los edificios y ciudades antiguas son partes importantes del patrimonio cultural, y la arquitectura es uno de los factores más importantes que ayuda a atraer turistas. El patrimonio arquitectónico no se limita a los monumentos conmemorativos más significativos, sino también a los edificios arquitectónicos secundarios y sus entornos naturales y artificiales ubicados en ciudades antiguas y pueblos únicos.  Método: La triangulación es el método de investigación mixto utilizado en este estudio. Este método incluyó la recopilación de datos iniciales, la realización de encuestas y entrevistas y la creación de mapas de casas. Se requieren herramientas de documentación arquitectónica tradicionales, como dibujos, planos, secciones, alzados y fotografías, en cada una de las tres etapas del proceso.  Resultados y Discusión: Bali ofrece una amplia gama de estilos y formas de arquitectura tradicional. Durante la era de Bali Central, el este de Bali, que era parte del reino Karangasem llamado puri, ha conservado numerosas obras maestras arquitectónicas. En este contexto, el patrimonio arquitectónico puede aumentar significativamente el valor de una propiedad. Para el turismo cultural, la preservación del patrimonio arquitectónico se considera respetuosa con el medio ambiente.  Implicaciones de la investigación: Este estudio examina cómo se puede utilizar de manera ideal y eficiente la arquitectura patrimonial como patrimonio cultural, lo que se puede lograr mediante la restauración sostenible de sitios arqueológicos y patrimoniales para crear un turismo patrimonial sostenible.  Originalidad/Valor: Esta investigación utiliza experiencias en países con patrimonio cultural, en la obtención de lecciones, valores y conceptos que contribuyan a lograr un programa eficiente para el desarrollo turístico sostenible, basado en la preservación de áreas patrimoniales. Objetivo: O objetivo da pesquisa é investigar e compreender as inter-relações entre o turismo cultural e os locais de património arquitectônico por meio de imagens e percepções turísticas. Isso deve equilibrar os esforços executivos, o planejamento regional, as necessidades da comunidade e os recursos disponíveis, preservando ao mesmo tempo o ambiente.  Referencial Teórico: As cidades e os edifícios históricos são considerados partes importantes do património cultural, e a arquitectura é uma das coisas mais importantes que atraem turistas. O patrimônio arquitectónico é uma parte importante do patrimônio cultural e dos atrativos turísticos. Ele inclui não apenas os monumentos comemorativos mais importantes, mas também seus edifícios secundários e seus ambientes naturais e artificiais em cidades e aldeias antigas.  Método: Este estudo usa a triangulação, um método misto de pesquisa. A coleta de dados iniciais, as entrevistas e inquéritos e a criação de mapas das casas foram todos componentes desta abordagem. Em cada uma das três etapas do processo, são necessárias ferramentas comuns de documentação arquitetônica, como desenhos, plantas, cortes, elevações e fotografias.  Resultados e Discussão: Bali oferece uma grande variedade de formas e estilos de arquitetura tradicionais. Durante a era central de Bali, o leste de Bali tinha muitas obras arquitetônicas únicas. Fazia parte do reino Karangasem conhecido como puri. Em situações como essa, o valor de uma propriedade pode ser significativamente aumentado por meio da preservação de seu patrimônio arquitectônico. O turismo cultural é visto como beneficiado pela preservação do patrimônio arquitetônico.  Implicações da Pesquisa: Este estudo investiga como a arquitetura patrimonial pode ser usada de forma ideal e eficaz como património cultural, o que pode ser alcançado por meio da restauração sustentável de sítios arqueológicos e patrimoniais para criar um turismo patrimonial sustentável.  Originalidade/Valor: Esta pesquisa explora as experiências em nações com património cultural para descobrir ideias, valores e perspectivas que podem ajudar a desenvolver um programa eficaz para o desenvolvimento do turismo sustentável, baseado na preservação de áreas patrimoniais.

The classification of architectural style for Chinese traditional settlements (CTSs) has become a crucial task for developing and preserving settlements. Traditionally, the classification of CTSs primarily relies on manual work, which is inefficient and time consuming. Inspired by the tremendous success of deep learning (DL), some recent studies attempted to apply DL networks such as convolution neural networks (CNNs) to achieve automated classification of the architecture styles. However, these studies suffer overfitting problems of the CNNs, leading to inferior classification performance. Moreover, most of the studies apply the CNNs as a black box providing limited interpretability. To address these limitations, a new DL classification framework is proposed in this study to overcome the overfitting problem by transfer learning and learning-based data augmentation technique (i.e., AutoAugment). Furthermore, we also employ class activation map (CAM) visualization technique to help understand how the CNN classifiers work to abstract patterns from the input. Specifically, due to a lack of architectural style datasets for the CTSs, a new annotated dataset is first established with six representative classes. Second, several representative CNNs are leveraged to benchmark the new dataset. Third, to address the overfitting problem of the CNNs, a new DL framework is proposed which combines transfer learning and AutoAugment to improve the classification performance. Extensive experiments are conducted on the new dataset to demonstrate the effectiveness of our framework. The proposed framework achieves much better performance than baselines, greatly mitigating the overfitting problem. Additionally, the CAM visualization technique is harnessed to explain what and how the CNN classifiers implicitly learn for recognizing a specified architectural style.

Most category studies have focused on established categories with discrete boundaries. These studies not only beg the question of how a de novo category arises, but also upon what institutional material actors draw to create a de novo category. We examine the formation and theorization of the de novo category “modern architecture” between 1870 and 1975. Our study shows that the process of new category formation was driven by groups of architects with distinct clientele associated with institutional logics of commerce, state, religion, and family. These architects enacted different artifact codes for a building based on institutional logics associated with their specific mix of clients. “Modern architects” fought over what logics and artifact codes should guide “modern architecture.” Modern functional architects espoused a logic of commerce enacted through a restricted artifact code of new materials in a building, whereas modern organic architects advocated transforming the profession's logic enacted through a flexible artifact code of mixing new and traditional materials in buildings. The conflict became a source of creative tension for modern architects that followed, who integrated aspects of both logics and materials in buildings, expanding the category boundary. Plural logics and category expansion resulted in multiple conflicting exemplars within “modern architecture” and enabled its adaptation to changing social forces and architectural interpretations for over 70 years.

This study investigates the influence of architectural styles on the value of housing units in heritage-listed apartment buildings across four Czech cities: Brno, Olomouc, Pilsen, and Ceske Budejovice (Budweis). Utilizing data from the National Heritage Institute, the Czech Statistical Office and Czech office for Surveying, Mapping and Cadastre, the research evaluates the relationship between architectural styles and property values using statistical methods, including Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The findings indicate no statistically significant influence of architectural style on property values, contrary to international studies suggesting a price premium for historical styles. However, a statistically significant effect of location on property values was identified, particularly in Brno. The study highlights cultural and geographic differences in architectural valuation and suggests further research to refine valuation methods for heritage-protected buildings, considering additional factors such as building condition, proximity to amenities, and public infrastructure.

Annaba, with its port, was among the pioneering Algerian cities to have a railway system installed during the latter half of the 19th century. The Bône-Guelma company constructed its station in an architectural style that was brought over through French colonization. The station was operational for multiple decades and played a significant role in the city’s growth during the early 20th century when a new, substantially larger station replaced it. This paper analyzes the architecture of both of these stations. Both structures were constructed during distinct historical and economic periods. By analyzing and comparing unpublished archival documents and conducting on-site research, we were able to examine the architectural typologies of these two buildings and identify their unique stylistic characteristics in comparison to similar buildings constructed in the colonies and mainland France. This work seeks to enhance the historical understanding of railway architecture in Algeria, specifically focusing on 19th and 20th-century railway stations. Its objective is to promote the preservation and acknowledgment of these stations, thereby contributing to scientific knowledge in this field.

Architecture is the stone book of history, and the evolution of architectural styles showcases a non-verbal history constructed through images. As an important part of China’s historical and cultural heritage, the architectural forms and styles of Tibetan Buddhist temples were initially modeled on Tang dynasty temple architecture and gradually evolved into the most significant architectural types in regions such as Tibet and Qinghai in China. Religious architecture has also played a significant role in shaping regional cultural landscapes. Existing research on Tibetan Buddhist temples is primarily focused on qualitative studies of individual temple buildings. This research takes the spatiotemporal evolution of architectural styles of Tibetan Buddhist temples as an entry point and, for the first time, employs ArcGIS technology to visualize the spatial and geographical distribution of Tibetan Buddhist temples from the 7th to the 18th century, establishing a comprehensive academic vision that encompasses both historical stratification and cross-regional spatial correlations. By analyzing the cultural symbolic features embodied in the construction styles of Tibetan Buddhist temples and the visual characteristics reflected in their decorative arts, we propose two spatiotemporal dimensions for the formation and transmission of Tibetan Buddhist temple architectural styles: “Westward Transmission” and “Eastward Diffusion”. Firstly, from the 7th to the 9th centuries, the architectural style and construction techniques of Tang dynasty Buddhist temples were transmitted westward along the Tang–Tibet ancient road, integrating with local Tibetan elements to form the Tubo architectural style, which was further refined into the “Sino–Tibetan Combined Style” with strong visual characteristics around the 13th century. Subsequently, along with the spread of Tibetan Buddhism, this temple architectural style underwent an eastward diffusion from the 13th to the 18th century, reaching regions, such as Sichuan, Qinghai, Gansu, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, and Beijing, presenting a spatial gradient from west to east in the geographical dimension. On this basis, in this research, we construct a historical evolution mapping of Tibetan Buddhist temple architectural styles based on bidirectional transmission, attempting to elucidate that the intrinsic driving forces are religious and the cultural identity that guided the bidirectional transmission mechanism of these architectural styles under the historical context of the formation and dissemination of Tibetan Buddhism from the 7th to the 18th century.

Large-scale classification of architectural styles in Chinese traditional settlements is important for heritage conservation and geospatial documentation, but scalable deployment remains constrained by the high cost of expert annotation because villages are widely distributed, the imagery is captured from heterogeneous viewpoints, and each architectural tradition exhibits substantial intra-class variation. To address this bottleneck, we propose CTSMatch, a label-efficient semi-supervised framework that combines an ImageNet-pretrained EfficientNetV2 backbone with SoftMatch-based adaptive pseudo-label weighting so that ambiguous but informative unlabeled samples can still contribute to training, thereby reducing reliance on costly expert annotation. We also construct SemiCTS, an extension of the original CTS dataset that adds 4360 unlabeled images. Using only 545 labeled samples, CTSMatch achieves 96.93% accuracy on SemiCTS, outperforming the strongest fully supervised baseline (Dense-TL-Aug) by 2.73 percentage points and two standard semi-supervised baselines (FixMatch and FreeMatch) by 3.06 percentage points. Beyond classification, we further analyze the feature space to examine stylistic lineage through intra-style heterogeneity, inter-style transitions, and outlier detection. The results reveal two broad regional groupings, a northern cluster (Jing, Jin, Su) and a southern cluster (Chuan, Min, Wan), connected by gradual transitions rather than rigid boundaries. Approximately 15% of the samples are identified as atypical cases, including 8.7% comprising regional variants and 6.3% comprising hybrid forms. These findings show that CTSMatch provides a practical label-efficient framework for architectural heritage classification while supporting the interpretable analysis of stylistic diversification and convergence in Chinese traditional settlements.

Various economic activities (urban agriculture, industries, services) are conceivable in the productive city. This thematic issue attempts to highlight especially urban production/manufacturing as tangible manifestations embedded in their local settings because they are conflict‐ridden, emanate distinctive spatial characteristics, and require complex planning processes. Therefore, we called for empirical case studies of such locally embedded economies with the productive city. As the contributions in this thematic issue emphasize, these activities can relate to high‐tech (e.g., platforms) but also to low‐tech (garment) and high‐touch industries (e.g., crafts, fashion). However, they all rely on the embeddedness of local economies in urban spaces as an enabling environment in the productive city. To fully realize these local embeddings, the productive city calls for alternative understandings of production, investment, and legal/planning frameworks entangled in zoning overlays or (informal) mixed‐use developments, orchestrated by means of digital technologies in a sustainable way (by circular economies, through environmental benefits). Simultaneously, the current (largely anecdotal) corpus of conceptual and qualitative case studies leaves unresolved the question whether the proposed ideas, visions, and guidelines for locally productive urban quarters are in fact achievable or merely reflect the wishful thinking of political agendas. More studies and improved methodological approaches are needed to operationalize the local significance and multipliers in order to objectively and statistically capture the genuine impacts of these sectors.

PurposeAs the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan celebrates its first centenary, this paper presents a critical reading of the development of architecture in the Kingdom reflecting the transformation of national identity.Design/methodology/approachThe paper achieves this aim by performing an analytical diachronic survey of the main architectural styles and trends that emerged in Jordan and links the architectural styles and trends to four main historical periods that characterize the national temporal trajectory, supported by examples of buildings, projects and architects that represent each period.FindingsThe results show the impacts of different forms of architectural modernism on local practice and explore attempts to create a national architectural identity that range in their ideological drive from Pan-Arabism to Jordanian localism.Originality/valueThe research adds to the discourse on Arab cities and architecture and shows the development of architectural trends in an Arab Muslim country, focusing on the interaction of architectural modernism with local variables. The research aims to supplement literature on Arab architecture with a critical and nuanced historical account of Jordanian architecture in the English language to serve a global audience.