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Natural ecosystems store large amounts of carbon globally, as organisms absorb carbon from the atmosphere to build large, long-lasting, or slow-decaying structures such as tree bark or root systems. An ecosystem’s carbon sequestration potential is tightly linked to its biological diversity. Yet when considering future projections, many carbon sequestration models fail to account for the role biodiversity plays in carbon storage. Here, we assess the consequences of plant biodiversity loss for carbon storage under multiple climate and land-use change scenarios. We link a macroecological model projecting changes in vascular plant richness under different scenarios with empirical data on relationships between biodiversity and biomass. We find that biodiversity declines from climate and land use change could lead to a global loss of between 7.44-103.14 PgC (global sustainability scenario) and 10.87-145.95 PgC (fossil-fueled development scenario). This indicates a self-reinforcing feedback loop, where higher levels of climate change lead to greater biodiversity loss, which in turn leads to greater carbon emissions and ultimately more climate change. Conversely, biodiversity conservation and restoration can help achieve climate change mitigation goals.

In a recent Forum paper, Wardle (Journal of Vegetation Science, 2016) questions the value of biodiversity-ecosystem function (BEF) experiments with respect to their implications for biodiversity changes in real world communities. The main criticism is that the previous focus of BEF experiments on random species assemblages within each level of diversity has 'limited the understanding of how natural communities respond to biodiversity loss.' He concludes that a broader spectrum of approaches considering both non-random gains and losses of diversity is essential to advance this field of research. Wardle's paper is timely because of recent observations of frequent local and regional biodiversity changes across ecosystems. While we appreciate that new and complementary experimental approaches are required for advancing the field, we question criticisms regarding the validity of BEF experiments. Therefore, we respond by briefly reiterating previous arguments emphasizing the reasoning behind random species composition in BEF experiments. We describe how BEF experiments have identified important mechanisms that play a role in real world ecosystems, advancing our understanding of ecosystem responses to species gains and losses. We discuss recent examples where theory derived from BEF experiments enriched our understanding of the consequences of biodiversity changes in real world ecosystems and where comprehensive analyses and integrative modelling approaches confirmed patterns found in BEF experiments. Finally, we provide some promising directions in BEF research.

Biodiversity losses are a major driver of global changes in ecosystem functioning. While most studies of the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning have examined randomized species losses, trait-based filtering associated with species-specific vulnerability to drivers of diversity loss can strongly influence how ecosystem functioning responds to declining biodiversity. Moreover, the responses of ecosystem functioning to diversity loss may be mediated by environmental variability interacting with the suite of traits remaining in depauperate communities. We do not yet understand how communities resulting from realistic diversity losses (filtered by response traits) influence ecosystem functioning (via effect traits of the remaining community), especially under variable environmental conditions. Here, we directly test how realistic and randomized plant diversity losses influence productivity and invasion resistance across multiple years in a California grassland. Compared with communities based on randomized diversity losses, communities resulting from realistic (drought-driven) species losses had higher invasion resistance under climatic conditions that matched the trait-based filtering they experienced. However, productivity declined more with realistic than with randomized species losses across all years, regardless of climatic conditions. Functional response traits aligned with effect traits for productivity but not for invasion resistance. Our findings illustrate that the effects of biodiversity losses depend not only on the identities of lost species but also on how the traits of remaining species interact with varying environmental conditions. Understanding the consequences of biodiversity change requires studies that evaluate trait-mediated effects of species losses and incorporate the increasingly variable climatic conditions that future communities are expected to experience.

Increasing evidence suggests that land-use intensification contributes to destabilization of trophic networks of insect communities in agriculture resulting in a loss of biodiversity. However, a more detailed understanding of the causes and consequences of the widely reported insect decline is still lacking. Here, we used standardised daily long-term data on the activity of flying insects (~ 250 d/year) to describe the interactive effects of climate warming in intensively cultivated regions and changes in predatory taxa on the general long-term trend of insects and the regulation of herbivores. While the intensely managed landscapes examined in this study show a substantial decline in several taxonomic groups (95.1% total biomass loss in 24 year), the data on aphids support a general assumption that biodiversity loss is often closely associated with arising pest problems. Aphids being pests in agroecosystems develop earlier in spring in overall higher annual abundances. The data highlight that regional insect abundances have declined over recent decades in agricultural landscapes, thus indicating fundamental effects on food webs and insect herbivore performance.

Biodiversity is crucial for maintaining ecosystem stability and achieving sustainable development. However, global biodiversity loss is a common challenge faced by most countries. Therefore, based on the data from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species and the Eora database, we used the multi-regional input–output (MRIO) model to calculate biodiversity loss in 188 countries. We constructed a global biodiversity loss transfer network from the binary and weighted perspectives and deconstructed the evolution characteristics and the factors influencing the network from the “relationship” perspective using social network analysis (SNA) and quadratic assignment procedure (QAP) method. The global biodiversity loss transfer network had a typical network structure with dense connections, demonstrating spatial correlation characteristics. The countries with top in- and out-degree centrality rankings were developed and large-scale emerging economies and developing countries in Africa, respectively, implying that the former are responsible for “importing” large amounts of biodiversity and transferring biodiversity loss to the latter. The block model analysis indicated that the transfer network was divided into different functional blocks, with biodiversity spillover effects. The QAP analysis revealed that the differences in geographical adjacency, per capita GDP, urbanization rate, environmental regulation, and agricultural land proportion explained 3.627% of the changes in the global biodiversity loss transfer network. Our results suggested that the relationships of biodiversity loss transfer among countries should be considered by policymakers to address biodiversity challenges. Therefore, governments should recognize the remote responsibility, reduce unsustainable consumption and production, develop sustainable trade, and make trade policies considering the transfer of biodiversity impacts.

The topics of biodiversity loss and dietary impact have received extensive individual scrutiny within the scientific community. However, there is a notable gap in understanding the level of awareness among stakeholders regarding the impact of dietary choices on biodiversity. Using a systematic review approach, this paper will identify how different stakeholders perceive and engage with the interconnected dynamics of biodiversity conservation and dietary choice. Following systematic processes, 26 articles were identified as suitable for inclusion in a qualitative synthesis. Results delineated four distinct stakeholder categories: consumers, Indigenous populations, producers and policymakers, each with a unique understanding of the relationship between biodiversity and diet. This variation is more pronounced in regions where food sourcing is more closely linked to local environmental conditions and reflects cultural identities. In developed countries, consumer behaviour tends to prioritise individual autonomy in dietary choices, posing significant implications for biodiversity conservation. Indigenous communities view themselves as essential elements of the environment, upholding collective culture, emphasising community, heritage and shared values in conservation efforts. Producers play a critical role in preserving terrestrial biodiversity through informed land management decisions, and policymakers lead by enacting policies aligned with conservation goals and discontinuing harmful subsidies. This systematic review reveals a strong consensus among stakeholders on the critical link between biodiversity and dietary practices, highlighting the importance of traditional food systems, consumer education and policy support in promoting sustainable diets that protect biodiversity. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Biodiversity-positive transformative change requires transformations at the societal level and transitions in specific sub-systems directed at addressing the indirect drivers of biodiversity loss. Despite the recognised need to target the sectors most responsible for nature’s decline, the dynamics of biodiversity loss and biodiversity-positive transformative change in the textile, apparel, and fashion sector have never been directly studied by academic contributors. This explorative study maps direct and indirect drivers of biodiversity loss in fashion’s supply chain activities and identifies barriers for transformative change to reflect on the potential direction of a biodiversity-positive transformation of the sector. We base our mapping on the qualitative thematic content analysis of semi-structured interviews with experts from the fashion sector in Italy and grey literature publications. Our results suggest that land-use change due to raw material production is the direct driver to which the industry contributes the most, while economic indirect drivers are the most influential for determining the intensity and distribution of the direct drivers. We identify seven barriers to biodiversity-positive transformative change: i) the ideology of perpetual growth, ii) fashion consumerism, iii) telecouplings, iv) rigid political boundaries, v) uncoordinated institutions and policies, vi) lack of understanding, human capital and measuring, and vii) poor availability of biodiversity-positive technologies. Moreover, we reflect on the direction of transformative change by addressing these drivers beyond panaceas, simple interventions, and single governance levels. Finally, we identify the absence of attention to power relations and equity as a potential obstacle to biodiversity-positive transformative change in fashion. Rather than a systematic and conclusive research endeavour, this study must be seen as a starting point from which further discussions can be developed to promote a transformative governance of biodiversity in fashion.

Small habitat patches have been historically neglected in conservation, primarily because extinction risk is higher in small patches. Nevertheless, sets of small patches usually harbor more species than one or a few larger patches of equal total area. Resolving this inconsistency is key to policy and practice in biodiversity conservation. Our analysis of 32 datasets (603 patches and 2290 taxa) provides two novel lines of evidence confirming that small patches have disproportionately high value for biodiversity. First, sets of small patches harbor more species than large patches even when considering only species of conservation concern. Second, sets of small patches harbor more species than large patches even when the small patches are very small compared to the large patches. Therefore, higher extinction risk in small than large patches does not decrease the cumulative value of small patches for biodiversity. We contend that acknowledging the conservation value of small patches, even very small patches, will be a necessary step for stemming biodiversity loss in the Anthropocene.

Renewable energy production is necessary to halt climate change and reverse associated biodiversity losses. However, generating the required technologies and infrastructure will drive an increase in the production of many metals, creating new mining threats for biodiversity. Here, we map mining areas and assess their spatial coincidence with biodiversity conservation sites and priorities. Mining potentially influences 50 million km 2 of Earth’s land surface, with 8% coinciding with Protected Areas, 7% with Key Biodiversity Areas, and 16% with Remaining Wilderness. Most mining areas (82%) target materials needed for renewable energy production, and areas that overlap with Protected Areas and Remaining Wilderness contain a greater density of mines (our indicator of threat severity) compared to the overlapping mining areas that target other materials. Mining threats to biodiversity will increase as more mines target materials for renewable energy production and, without strategic planning, these new threats to biodiversity may surpass those averted by climate change mitigation. Renewable energy production is necessary to mitigate climate change, however, generating the required technologies and infrastructure will demand huge production increases of many metals. Here, the authors map mining areas and assess spatial coincidence with biodiversity conservation sites, and show that new mining threats to biodiversity may surpass those averted by climate change mitigation.

1. Global concern about human impact on biological diversity has triggered an intense research agenda on drivers and consequences of biodiversity change in parallel with international policy seeking to conserve biodiversity and associated ecosystem functions. Quantifying the trends in biodiversity is far from trivial, however, as recently documented by meta-analyses, which report little if any net change in local species richness through time. 2. Here, we summarise several limitations of species richness as a metric of biodiversity change and show that the expectation of directional species richness trends under changing conditions is invalid. Instead, we illustrate how a set of species turnover indices provide more information content regarding temporal trends in biodiversity, as they reflect how dominance and identity shift in communities over time. 3. We apply these metrics to three monitoring datasets representing different ecosystem types. In all datasets, nearly complete species turnover occurred, but this was disconnected from any species richness trends. Instead, turnover was strongly influenced by changes in species presence (identities) and dominance (abundances). We further show that these metrics can detect phases of strong compositional shifts in monitoring data and thus identify a different aspect of biodiversity change decoupled from species richness. 4. Synthesis and applications: Temporal trends in species richness are insufficient to capture key changes in biodiversity in changing environments. In fact, reductions in environmental quality can lead to transient increases in species richness if immigration or extinction has different temporal dynamics. Thus, biodiversity monitoring programmes need to go beyond analyses of trends in richness in favour of more meaningful assessments of biodiversity change.