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\"This book provides, for the first time, a broad and deep treatment of the fields of both ultra low power electronics and bioelectronics. It discusses fundamental principles and circuits for ultra low power electronic design and their applications in biomedical systems. It also discusses how ultra energy efficient cellular and neural systems in biology can inspire revolutionary low power architectures in mixed-signal and RF electronics. The book presents a unique, unifying view of ultra low power analog and digital electronics and emphasizes the use of the ultra energy efficient subthreshold regime of transistor operation in both. Chapters on batteries, energy harvesting, and the future of energy provide an understanding of fundamental relationships between energy use and energy generation at small scales and at large scales. A wealth of insights and examples from brain implants, cochlear implants, bio-molecular sensing, cardiac devices, and bio-inspired systems make the book useful and engaging for students and practising engineers\"--Provided by publisher.

Recently, bioelectronic devices extensively researched and developed through the convergence of flexible biocompatible materials and electronics design that enables  more precise diagnostics and therapeutics in human health care and opens up the potential to expand into various fields, such as clinical medicine and biomedical research. To establish an accurate and stable bidirectional bio‐interface, protection against the external environment and high mechanical deformation is essential for wearable bioelectronic devices. In the case of implantable bioelectronics, special encapsulation materials and optimized mechanical designs and configurations that provide electronic stability and functionality are required for accommodating various organ properties, lifespans, and functions in the biofluid environment. Here, this study introduces recent developments of ultra‐thin encapsulations with novel materials that can preserve or even improve the electrical performance of wearable and implantable bio‐integrated electronics by supporting safety and stability for protection from destruction and contamination as well as optimizing the use of bioelectronic systems in physiological environments. In addition, a summary of the materials, methods, and characteristics of the most widely used encapsulation technologies is introduced, thereby providing a strategic selection of appropriate choices of recently developed flexible bioelectronics. This review highlights the latest progress and trends, beginning with the development of advanced materials for encapsulations for flexible bioelectronics and the invention of new schemes for multifunctional flexible bio‐integrated electronics. By dividing this review into wearable and implantable electronics sections, it will help readers make appropriate choices and understand the use of materials and enable the development of various application fields.

Wearable and implantable electroceuticals (WIEs) for therapeutic electrostimulation (ES) have become indispensable medical devices in modern healthcare. In addition to functionality, device miniaturization, conformability, biocompatibility, and/or biodegradability are the main engineering targets for the development and clinical translation of WIEs. Recent innovations are mainly focused on wearable/implantable power sources, advanced conformable electrodes, and efficient ES on targeted organs and tissues. Herein, nanogenerators as a hotspot wearable/implantable energy‐harvesting technique suitable for powering WIEs are reviewed. Then, electrodes for comfortable attachment and efficient delivery of electrical signals to targeted tissue/organ are introduced and compared. A few promising application directions of ES are discussed, including heart stimulation, nerve modulation, skin regeneration, muscle activation, and assistance to other therapeutic modalities. An overview of the most recent innovations in wearable and implantable electroceuticals (WIEs) with focus on nanogenerator (NG) power sources, advanced conformable electrodes, and efficient electrostimulation on targeted organs and tissues is presented. The NG‐based technology is foreseeable to transform the concurrent WIEs toward the next generation of precision electrotherapy in the near future.

Cardiovascular diseases remain a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite significant advancements in treatment, there is an urgent need for novel therapeutic solutions. In vitro engineering of cardiac tissue offers promising avenues for regenerative medicine and drug therapy. However, conventional in vitro methods for culturing cardiomyocytes (CMs) often fail to recapitulate the complex phenotype of native cardiac tissue as well as the complex three-dimensional microenvironment of the native myocardium, limiting their translational potential.To address this challenge, we propose a multidisciplinary approach to enhance the phenotype of CMs cultured in vitro by introducing a mesh bioelectronic scaffold capable of electrically interrogating CMs in both a 2D and 3D culture settings. Initially inspired by neural interface technologies, we developed our own bioelectronic device utilizing photolithography techniques that features a flexible mesh made of gold electrode ribbons coated with a biocompatible polymer (SU-8). Using this device, we established a means of directly interfacing with CMs. CMs readily attach to the device after coating with fibronectin and can be electrically stimulated via internal stimulating electrodes. Culturing CMs on the device increased cell alignment (nuclear aspect ratio of 1.4 for CMs on the device versus 1 for CMs in 2D control cultures; p<0.01, n=3). Delivery of electrical stimulation further improved alignment and contractility (nuclear aspect ratio 1.77 vs. 1.4, p<0.01, n=40 cells; contraction amplitude: 900 a.u. with electrical stimulation versus 400 a.u. without electrical stimulation, p<0.001, n=3).Although the application of a neural bioelectronic device design to CMs acts as a proof of concept, it has become apparent that further optimization would be necessary for cardiac models and revisions of the bioelectronic mesh design would need to be carried out for the specific physiological characteristics of CMs. To enhance the robustness of the mesh bioelectronic device and optimize the mesh scaffold design specifically for CMs, we refined the selected ribbon widths (30–60µm), reducing the spacing between ribbons for better cell proximity, and increasing device thickness for enhanced stiffness (5pPa vs. 0.5pPa) and handling. These modifications have significantly improved cell-to-device interaction, promoting cell elongation and attachment. Future work will evaluate the effect of the new device geometry and stiffness on CMs calcium handling. These preliminary results indicate that our bioelectronic platform shows promise in creating cardiac tissue models for regenerative medicine, potentially offering a new avenue for cardiovascular disease therapy.Conflict of InterestN/A

Fiber‐type soft bioelectronics are revolutionizing wearable and implantable healthcare technologies by addressing critical clinical challenges, particularly minimizing the mismatch in mechanical stiffness between bioelectronics and biological tissues. These devices can seamlessly integrate with dynamic in vivo environments. Their inherent mechanical flexibility and structural adaptability enable applications in both confined sensitive regions and expansive highly mobile areas of the body. Beyond adaptability, fiber‐type soft bioelectronics offer multifunctionality, enabling real‐time biological signal acquisition, targeted drug delivery, and localized electrical stimulation. Moreover, fabric‐based designs offer excellent conformability, making them suitable for long‐term monitoring of physical, electrochemical, and electrophysiological signals. This article presents a comprehensive review on fiber‐type soft bioelectronics technologies, with a focus on their wearable and implantable applications in healthcare. First, the fundamental requirements for these devices are outlined, describing the foundation for their design and functional integration. Technological advancements that fulfill those requirements are described based on actual examples. The review also examines the materials used for the fibers, highlighting their mechanical, electrical, and biocompatible properties. Next, strategies for fiber fabrication are discussed, including methods for transforming fibers into fabrics. Finally, recent breakthroughs in the applications of fiber‐ and fabric‐type soft bioelectronics in health monitoring and therapeutic interventions are explored.

Medical science technology has improved tremendously over the decades with the invention of robotic surgery, gene editing, immune therapy, etc. However, scientists are now recognizing the significance of ‘biological circuits’ i.e., bodily innate electrical systems for the healthy functioning of the body or for any disease conditions. Therefore, the current trend in the medical field is to understand the role of these biological circuits and exploit their advantages for therapeutic purposes. Bioelectronics, devised with these aims, work by resetting, stimulating, or blocking the electrical pathways. Bioelectronics are also used to monitor the biological cues to assess the homeostasis of the body. In a way, they bridge the gap between drug-based interventions and medical devices. With this in mind, scientists are now working towards developing flexible and stretchable miniaturized bioelectronics that can easily conform to the tissue topology, are non-toxic, elicit no immune reaction, and address the issues that drugs are unable to solve. Since the bioelectronic devices that come in contact with the body or body organs need to establish an unobstructed interface with the respective site, it is crucial that those bioelectronics are not only flexible but also stretchable for constant monitoring of the biological signals. Understanding the challenges of fabricating soft stretchable devices, we review several flexible and stretchable materials used as substrate, stretchable electrical conduits and encapsulation, design modifications for stretchability, fabrication techniques, methods of signal transmission and monitoring, and the power sources for these stretchable bioelectronics. Ultimately, these bioelectronic devices can be used for wide range of applications from skin bioelectronics and biosensing devices, to neural implants for diagnostic or therapeutic purposes.

HighlightsThis food biopolymer-based biogel unites the challenging needs of elastic yet injectable wound dressing and skin bioelectronics in a single platform.This is the first demonstration of a hydrogel dressing that satisfies both deep and superficial wounds, and for the accelerated healing of diabetic wounds.Biogel-based flexible skin bioelectronic can serve as a “fever indicator” and monitoring human activities and tiny electrophysiological signals, providing important clinical information for the rehabilitation training of the wounded.An increasing utilization of wound-related therapeutic materials and skin bioelectronics urges the development of multifunctional biogels for personal therapy and health management. Nevertheless, conventional dressings and skin bioelectronics with single function, mechanical mismatches, and impracticality severely limit their widespread applications in clinical. Herein, we explore a gelling mechanism, fabrication method, and functionalization for broadly applicable food biopolymers-based biogels that unite the challenging needs of elastic yet injectable wound dressing and skin bioelectronics in a single system. We combine our biogels with functional nanomaterials, such as cuttlefish ink nanoparticles and silver nanowires, to endow the biogels with reactive oxygen species scavenging capacity and electrical conductivity, and finally realized the improvement in diabetic wound microenvironment and the monitoring of electrophysiological signals on skin. This line of research work sheds light on preparing food biopolymers-based biogels with multifunctional integration of wound treatment and smart medical treatment.

Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)s are the conducting polymers (CP) with the biggest prospects in the field of bioelectronics due to their combination of characteristics (conductivity, stability, transparency and biocompatibility). The gold standard material is the commercially available poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS). However, in order to well connect the two fields of biology and electronics, PEDOT:PSS presents some limitations associated with its low (bio)functionality. In this review, we provide an insight into the synthesis and applications of innovative poly(ethylenedioxythiophene)-type materials for bioelectronics. First, we present a detailed analysis of the different synthetic routes to (bio)functional dioxythiophene monomer/polymer derivatives. Second, we focus on the preparation of PEDOT dispersions using different biopolymers and biomolecules as dopants and stabilizers. To finish, we review the applications of innovative PEDOT-type materials such as biocompatible conducting polymer layers, conducting hydrogels, biosensors, selective detachment of cells, scaffolds for tissue engineering, electrodes for electrophysiology, implantable electrodes, stimulation of neuronal cells or pan-bio electronics.

This review article provides an introductory overview of organic bioelectronics, focusing on the creation of electrical devices that use specialized carbon-based semiconducting materials to interact successfully with biological processes. These organic materials demonstrate flexibility, biocompatibility, and the capacity to carry both electrical and ionic impulses, making them an ideal choice for connecting human tissue with electronic technology. The review study examines diverse materials, such as the conductive polymers Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) and Polyaniline (PANI), along with critical devices like organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs), which are exceptionally efficient for sensitive biosensing applications. Significant applications include implanted neural interfaces for the brain and nerves, wearable health monitoring, tissue engineering scaffolds that facilitate tissue repair, and sophisticated drug delivery systems. The review acknowledges current challenges, including long-term stability and safety, while envisioning a future where these technologies revolutionize healthcare, human–machine interaction, and environmental monitoring via continuous multidisciplinary innovation.

Transmission-mode pulse oximetry, the optical method for determining oxygen saturation in blood, is limited to only tissues that can be transilluminated, such as the earlobes and the fingers. The existing sensor configuration provides only singlepoint measurements, lacking 2D oxygenation mapping capability. Here, we demonstrate a flexible and printed sensor array composed of organic light-emitting diodes and organic photodiodes, which senses reflected light from tissue to determine the oxygen saturation. We use the reflectance oximeter array beyond the conventional sensing locations. The sensor is implemented to measure oxygen saturation on the forehead with 1.1% mean error and to create 2D oxygenation maps of adult forearms under pressure-cuff–induced ischemia. In addition, we present mathematical models to determine oxygenation in the presence and absence of a pulsatile arterial blood signal. The mechanical flexibility, 2D oxygenation mapping capability, and the ability to place the sensor in various locations make the reflectance oximeter array promising for medical sensing applications such as monitoring of real-time chronic medical conditions as well as postsurgery recovery management of tissues, organs, and wounds.