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Species reintroductions, an increasingly used measure in conservation, may be imposed, hindered, or conditioned by law. The European bison ( Bison bonasus ), once extinct in the wild, now lives in several free-ranging populations all stemming from reintroductions. Reintroduction of European bison to Sweden has been proposed and advocated. Zooarchaeological findings indicate that wild European bison existed in Sweden 11,200-9,500 years before present. Here we address and apply the relevant legal prerequisites for a reintroduction of European bison to Sweden. Applying international, European Union, and national Swedish law, we first show that there is no strict obligation for Sweden to reintroduce European bison. The responsible authority has considerable discretion in whether to allow a reintroduction of European bison. Rules on species protection, site protection, animal health, and animal welfare set conditions for how a reintroduction process should be implemented. Unclear legal rules on compensation and civil liability for damages caused by European bison create uncertainties about financial risks. Finally, the European bison is a protected species under the EU Habitats Directive, which further limits management options after reintroduction. Our assessment shows how law influences the feasibility of a reintroduction of a protected animal species to an EU Member State.

Background Our recent macro- and scanning electron microscopic study of tongue conducted on domesticated cattle, wild living European bison, and Bison bonasus hybrid revealed various spatial arrangement and number of gustatory and mechanical papillae between parental species and their hybrid. Furthermore, scanning electron microscopy analysis of gustatory papillae indicated the variable distribution of fungiform papillae (Fu) over the surface of the tongue, which could be significant in differentiated taste perception during feeding in studied wild living and domesticated husbandry ruminants. To specify the detailed microstructure of Fu papillae with connective tissue cores (CTC) and intraepithelial taste buds system, the first time the three-dimensional computer-aided analysis of serial histoslides resulted in the rendering of 3D reconstructions of Fu papillae. Results The comparative analysis of 3D models Fu papillae conducted in six areas of lingual mucosa of each tongue revealed information about, microstructural diversity of Fu papillae in studied ruminants. The estimation of number and density of Fu papillae on tongues, rate of protrusion of papillae over mucosa, and a number of taste buds per papilla allowed to state the ventral surface of the lingual apex and posterolateral surfaces of the lingual torus as regions important in taste perception, as in the preselection of taken food, as well in the analysis of food during rumination, respectively. On the 3D models were observed three structural types of CTC of different distribution on the tongue in studied species. The quantitative data of the number of taste buds on Fu papillae have regional functional differences in the taste system important in feeding and veterinary practice. Moreover, our analysis determined specific features in examined hybrid and showed similarities of some studied features with cattle, i.e., maternal species. Conclusions The 3D reconstruction method used for the first time in the field of study of the lingual papillae and taste buds system can be considered as an innovative and effective tool in assessing of the microstructures of Fu papillae, and it could be suitable for further studies of taste system structures in normal and pathological condition.

Lungworms of the genus Dictyocaulus Railliet and Henry, 1907 (Nematoda: Trichostrongyloidea) are the causative agents of parasitic bronchitis (dictyocaulosis, husk) of various ungulate hosts, including domestic and wild ruminants. Correct diagnosis of lungworm species and a better understanding of the transmission patterns of Dictyocaulus spp. are crucial in minimising the risk of its cross transmission between wildlife and livestock, and for the control of dictyocaulosis. The study was conducted on large lungworms collected from European bison, roe deer and red deer. The study resulted in 14 sequences of the partial cox1 region of Dictyocaulus spp. and 10 novel DNA sequences of partial cox3 region, including the first available mt cox3 sequence, of the roe deer lungworm (D. capreolus). The European bison was infected with bison genotype of D. viviparus, whereas red deer and roe deer were infected with D. cervi and D. capreolus respectively. The current study revealed that the cox3 nucleotide sequences of D. capreolus and D. viviparus were 100% homologous to each other. Our findings indicate that the mt cox3 gene does not serve as an efficient mt marker for systematic, population genetic or molecular epidemiological studies of Dictyocaulus lungworms.

This Comment builds on Nores et al. by highlighting an overlooked dimension of the proposed European bison introduction in the Iberian Peninsula: the risks posed by roads to both wildlife and human safety. Drawing on evidence from Central and Eastern Europe, we show that traffic‐related mortality can be significant even in well‐managed bison populations. We argue that any rewilding initiative in Iberia must explicitly account for these risks, which challenge both the ecological and social feasibility of such projects.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of environmental factors, sexual selection, and genetic variation on skull morphology by examining the skull structure of the European bison, a species at risk of extinction, and comparing it to other bovid species. The skull of the European bison was significantly bigger than that of other species of the tribe Bovini , and the results revealed considerable morphological differences in skull shape compared to other Bovini samples. The bison skull exhibited a broader shape in the frontal region and a more laterally oriented cornual process. The frontal bone also significantly influenced skull shape variation within the European bison subspecies. Also, the findings indicated that cornual processes size significantly affected skull shape. Male Bison had larger skulls and more developed cornual ridges, and these morphological changes in the frontal region are thought to have also influenced the nuchal region, maxillary region, and facial bones. Furthermore, the differences in skull size observed between the Lowland-Pszczyna and Lowland-Białowieża lines, which share a closer origin than the Lowland-Carpathian lines, may reflect environmental and genetic adaptations over time. This research provides a reference point for future studies on the ecological and evolutionary factors influencing bison skull variations, with significant implications for the conservation of this species.

According to the refugee species concept, increasing replacement of open steppe by forest cover after the last glacial period and human pressure had together forced European bison (Bison bonasus)--the largest extant terrestrial mammal of Europe--into forests as a refuge habitat. The consequent decreased fitness and population density led to the gradual extinction of the species. Understanding the pre-refugee ecology of the species may help its conservation management and ensure its long time survival. In view of this, we investigated the abundance of stable isotopes (δ13C and δ15N) in radiocarbon dated skeletal remains of European bison and other large herbivores--aurochs (Bos primigenius), moose (Alces alces), and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus)--from the Early Holocene of northern Europe to reconstruct their dietary habits and pattern of habitat use in conditions of low human influence. Carbon and nitrogen isotopic compositions in collagen of the ungulate species in northern central Europe during the Early Holocene showed significant differences in the habitat use and the diet of these herbivores. The values of the δ13C and δ15N isotopes reflected the use of open habitats by bison, with their diet intermediate between that of aurochs (grazer) and of moose (browser). Our results show that, despite the partial overlap in carbon and nitrogen isotopic values of some species, Early Holocene large ungulates avoided competition by selection of different habitats or different food sources within similar environments. Although Early Holocene bison and Late Pleistocene steppe bison utilized open habitats, their diets were significantly different, as reflected by their δ15N values. Additional isotopic analyses show that modern populations of European bison utilize much more forested habitats than Early Holocene bison, which supports the refugee status of the species.

The European bison was saved from the brink of extinction due to considerable conservation efforts since the early twentieth century. The current global population of > 9500 individuals is the result of successful ex situ breeding based on a stock of only 12 founders, resulting in an extremely low level of genetic variability. Due to the low allelic diversity, traditional molecular tools, such as microsatellites, fail to provide sufficient resolution for accurate genetic assessments in European bison, let alone from non-invasive samples. Here, we present a SNP panel for accurate high-resolution genotyping of European bison, which is suitable for a wide variety of sample types. The panel accommodates 96 markers allowing for individual and parental assignment, sex determination, breeding line discrimination, and cross-species detection. Two applications were shown to be utilisable in further Bos species with potential conservation significance. The new SNP panel will allow to tackle crucial tasks in European bison conservation, including the genetic monitoring of reintroduced populations, and a molecular assessment of pedigree data documented in the world’s first studbook of a threatened species.

Species of the Bos genus, including taurine cattle, zebu, gayal, gaur, banteng, yak, wisent and bison, have been domesticated at least four times and have been an important source of meat, milk and power for many human cultures. We sequence the genomes of gayal, gaur, banteng, wisent and bison, and provide population genomic sequencing of an additional 98 individuals. We use these data to determine the phylogeny and evolutionary history of these species and show that the threatened gayal is an independent species or subspecies. We show that there has been pronounced introgression among different members of this genus, and that it in many cases has involved genes of considerable adaptive importance. For example, genes under domestication selection in cattle (for example, MITF ) were introgressed from domestic cattle to yak. Also, genes in the response-to-hypoxia pathway (for example, EGLN1 , EGLN2 and HIF3a ) have been introgressed from yak to Tibetan cattle, probably facilitating their adaptation to high altitude. We also validate that there is an association between the introgressed EGLN1 allele and haemoglobin and red blood cell concentration. Our results illustrate the importance of introgression as a source of adaptive variation and during domestication, and suggest that the Bos genus evolves as a complex of genetically interconnected species with shared evolutionary trajectories. Genome sequences of Bos species are sequenced and compared to determine their phylogeny and evolutionary history. Introgression pathways for genes under domestication selection are identified.

Aim Several large‐mammal species in Europe have recovered and recolonized parts of their historical ranges. Knowing where suitable habitat exists, and thus where range expansions are possible, is important for proactively promoting coexistence between people and large mammals in shared landscapes. We aimed to assess the opportunities and limitations for range expansions of Europe's two largest herbivores, the European bison (Bison bonasus) and moose (Alces alces). Location Central Europe. Methods We used large occurrence datasets from multiple populations and species distribution models to map environmentally suitable habitats for European bison and moose across Central Europe, and to assess human pressure inside the potential habitat. We then used circuit theory modeling to identify potential recolonization corridors. Results We found widespread suitable habitats for both European bison (>120,000 km2) and moose (>244,000 km2), suggesting substantial potential for range expansions. However, much habitat was associated with high human pressure (37% and 43% for European bison and moose, respectively), particularly in the west of Central Europe. We identified a strong east–west gradient of decreasing connectivity, with major barriers likely limiting natural recolonization in many areas. Main conclusions We identify major potential for restoring large herbivores and their functional roles in Europe's landscapes. However, we also highlight considerable challenges for conservation planning and wildlife management, including areas where recolonization likely leads to human–wildlife conflict and where barriers to movement prevent natural range expansion. Conservation measures restoring broad‐scale connectivity are needed in order to allow European bison and moose to recolonize their historical ranges. Finally, our analyses and maps indicate suitable but isolated habitat patches that are unlikely to be colonized but are candidate locations for reintroductions to establish reservoir populations. More generally, our work emphasizes that transboundary cooperation is needed for restoring large herbivores and their ecological roles, and to foster coexistence with people in Europe's landscapes.

Hematological and biochemical blood parameters are important tools for evaluating animals’ health. They might be crucial in assessing the health of entire populations of wild animals, such as European bison ( Bison bonasus ). The aim of this study was to establish hematological and biochemical values for healthy European bison and to determine whether there were significant relations with age and sex. Blood samples were collected from 79 animals and tested according to generally accepted standards and the results were subjected to statistical analysis. Most of the age and gender-related correlations found in our study were predictable based on previous reports. Due to bone growth, juvenile animals have typically higher ALP and P concentrations relative to adults. Several age-related dependencies were surprising, like higher Na concentration in younger European bison. Determination of hematological and biochemical blood parameters of healthy European bison may significantly contribute to the further restitution of this endangered species.