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"Black Hawk (1767-1838)"
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Uncommon Defense
In the spring of 1832, when the Indian warrior Black Hawk and a thousand followers marched into Illinois to reoccupy lands earlier ceded to American settlers, the U.S. Army turned to rival tribes for military support. Elements of the Menominee, Dakota, Potawatomi, and Ho Chunk tribes willingly allied themselves with the United States government against their fellow Native Americans in an uncommon defense of their diverse interests. As the Black Hawk War came only two years after the passage of the Indian Removal Act and is widely viewed as a land grab by ravenous settlers, the military participation of these tribes seems bizarre. What explains this alliance? In order to grasp Indian motives, John Hall explores their alliances in earlier wars with colonial powers as well as in intertribal antagonisms and conflicts. In the crisis of 1832, Indians acted as they had traditionally, leveraging their relationship with a powerful ally to strike tribal enemies, fulfill important male warrior expectations, and pursue political advantage and material gain. However, times had changed and, although the Indians achieved short-term objectives, they helped create conditions that permanently changed their world. Providing a rare view of Indian attitudes and strategies in war and peace, Hall deepens our understanding of Native Americans and the complex roles they played in the nation's history. More broadly, he demonstrates the risks and lessons of small wars that entail an \"uncommon defense\" by unlikely allies in pursuit of diverse, even conflicting, goals.
eBook
Black Hawk
\"Black Hawk (1767-1838) was a Native American leader of the Sauk people. He was noted for his struggle against the westward movement of the white settlers in Illinois.\" (World Book Student) Read more about the life of Black Hawk
Reference
Indian Wars
\"Indian wars were conflicts between the first people to live in the Americas, called Indians or Native Americans, and the European settlers who formed the United States of America. The fighting went on for hundreds of years, from the 1500's, when European explorers and then colonists first arrived, until the 1890's. As newcomers arrived in greater numbers, they took more and more Indian lands. The Indians fought to keep their territory. Over the years, however, the Indians were pushed farther and farther west and onto reservations.\" (World Book Student) Read more about the Indian wars.
Reference
Indigeneity and Immigration in Susan Glaspell’s Inheritors
6 Glaspell’s imagining of herself and Cook as occupants of an Indigenous space and her gesture at the “pain and terror” that resulted from the park owners’ seizure of Native land anticipate concerns central to her play Inheritors, begun in January 1920, and first staged by the Provincetown Players in 1921.7 A less exclusive gathering held on July 1, 1911, approximately one hundred miles away may have also provided inspiration; surely it demonstrated the abiding cultural and political power of Black Hawk’s memory in the Midwest. For Glaspell, Indigeneity accrues formal and political value through its assumption of broad exemplarity. [...]she leaves Indigenous people strategically unrepresented: In the earlier reading, she regards Glaspell’s decision as a device for accenting a “remov[al]” of Indigenous people “from the American landscape” that Glaspell considered factual.14 Later, she argues that “the disappearance of Native Americans from the landscape is the only obstacle to the pioneer characters’ absolute topophilia.” 16 But Glaspell, habitually attuned to matters of current importance, must have known that she was writing near the end of a decade of vigorous debate, generated in significant part by the “citizen Indians” or “Indigenous intellectuals” of the inter-tribal Society of American Indians (SAI), about the legal and cultural status of American Indians.17 After its founding in 1911, the SAI held conferences across the West and Midwest and promoted citizenship and education, the activating sites of political engagement in Inheritors, as major planks of its platform.
Journal Article
Black Hawk in Translation: Indigenous Critique and Liberal Guilt in the 1847 Dutch Edition of Life of Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak
First published in Cincinnati in 1833, the Life was a best seller in the United States, but it was unfamiliar to Posthumus, who lived in a small village near the North Sea in the province of Friesland (Frisia). Extending these transatlantic dialogues to a Frisian-Dutch print culture, Rinse Posthumus's translation of the Life not only catered to a widespread ethnological interest in Native American culture in Europe but also brought Black Hawk's critique of settler expansion into political debates about state power that had local and transnational implications. By annotating Black Hawk's account of Sauk traditions and Indigenous dispossession, Posthumus gives voice to his political commitment to liberalism during a time of economic depression and revolutionary energy in the Netherlands. Since these pressures gave rise to a peak in Dutch immigration to the American Midwest-including the very lands that were opened up for settlement after the Black Hawk War (1832)- his commentary in Levensgeschiedenis negotiates a politics of liberal guilt over the intertwined histories of European migration and Sauk dispossession. Despite the widespread European interest in Native cultures, the works of William Apess (Pequot) and George Copway (Ojibwe) did not appear in translation on the European continent in the nineteenth century, although pirated adaptations of the Cherokee author John Rollin Ridge's novel The Life and Adventures of Joaquín Murrieta (1854) were translated into French and Spanish in the 1880s (Parins 107).
Journal Article
The Black Hawk War
\"The Black Hawk War raged in 1832 against the backdrop of increasing European settlement in the Northwest Territory, home to Native Americans for generations. The war is named for the Sac (or Sauk) chief Black Hawk, who is thought to have been born in 1767 in the village of Saukenuk in what is now Illinois. Black Hawk became known as a fierce fighter, particularly in his tribe's struggles against the neighboring Osage.\" (Social Studies for Kids) Learn more about the Black Hawk War.
Web Resource
Indian Altars of the Spiritual Church: Kongo Echoes in New Orleans
\"The Spiritual Church of New Orleans is one of the most vibrant and complex religious communities in a city well known for its rich sacred heritage. The almost exclusively African American congregation and clergy combine Roman Catholic iconography and aesthetics with a fiery revivalist preaching style, and blend mediumistic practices derived from nineteenth-century American spiritualism with African cosmologies, ritual traditions, and folk medicine...One of the most celebrated aspects of the Churches is the veneration...of one or more 'Indian' spirits. Local history, popular opinion, and published biographies of Native American historical figures combine to create a rich narrative and ritual tradition surrounding Indian spirits like the redoubtable Black Hawk...Even a brief glance at the altars reveals that they are products of several diverse cultural streams...\" (AFRICAN ARTS). Spiritual Church of New Orleans Black Hawk altars and their associated rites are examined. West African Kongo influences on the spiritual tradition are identified.
Journal Article
Who Was Black Hawk and Why Did He Lead a Band of His People
An 1804 treaty pushed the Sauk and Fox Native Americans from their homeland to west of the Mississipi. Learn why Native American chief Black Hawk defied this treaty and unintentionally started a war that would be devastating to his tribe.
Government Document