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The story of the recovery of mountain lions in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Mountain lions, sometimes called pumas or cougars, were once spread throughout the United States, occupying all 48 of the contiguous states. By the 1960s, though, they were almost extinct in central and eastern North America. In Mountain Lions of the Black Hills, Dr. Jonathan A. Jenks, who, along with his team of graduate students, has tracked over 200 of these fascinating predators, tells the complex story of the big cats' lives in the northern Great Plains. Jenks reports on mountain lion population dynamics, diet, nutrition, diseases, behavior, and genetics. He explores the impact of a changing prey base on population growth and decline, movements within and away from the region, and hunting on the species; discusses interactions between the cats and livestock; and examines local people's evolving perceptions of mountain lions. Throughout, Jenks explores how we can balance conservation techniques with the needs of humans. Providing a unique look into how a large, secretive predator recolonized an isolated region of North America, Mountain Lions of the Black Hills is required reading for wildlife professionals. A captivating text for anyone struck by the wild majesty of these big cats, this book provides invaluable data upon which to make sound management decisions in the Great Plains and beyond.

We investigated population growth rate (λ) for a Merriam's wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo merriami) population in the northern Black Hills, South Dakota, USA. We constructed and evaluated a females-only matrix population model. Our estimate of asymptotic λ, derived from estimates of vital rates obtained from 2016–2018 was 0.74 (95% CI = 0.60, 0.88), which indicates that the vital rates were inadequate to sustain the population. Elasticity values were highest for changes in adult survival probability followed by, in order, changes in juvenile survival, yearling survival, and adult reproduction. We could only achieve stable or growing populations (i.e., λ ≥ 1) by increasing the probability of adult and yearling survival (holding all other vital rates constant). Estimated adult survival rate in the work reported here was lower than values reported for other populations in the Black Hills; therefore, managing for increased female survival (≥0.68) may be the most practical strategy for promoting wild turkey population growth in this system. We recommend no female harvest during any open turkey season.

Understanding how reproductive tradeoffs act in concert with abiotic elements to affect survival is important for effective management and conservation of wildlife populations, particularly for at-risk or harvested species. Wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) are a high-interest species for consumptive and non-consumptive uses, and female survival is a primary factor influencing turkey population dynamics. We radio-tracked and collected survival data on 140 female Merriam’s wild turkeys (M. g. merriami) in the northern Black Hills, South Dakota, USA, 2016–2018. We developed and compared a set of candidate models to evaluate how nest incubation, brood rearing, and precipitation could be associated with female survival. Increased time spent incubating was associated with reduced female survival. Additionally, daily precipitation was associated with reduced survival of incubating females. Seasonal survival was lowest during spring and winter. A female that did not incubate a nest was predicted to have a higher rate of annual survival (0.53, 85% CI=0.48–0.59) than a female that incubated a single nest (0.47, 85% CI=0.42–0.53). Despite the relative proximity of population segments, we estimated that annual survival for nesting and non-nesting females was lower in the northern Black Hills compared to annual female survival in the southern Black Hills, underscoring the need for region-specific data when possible.

Although cougars (Puma concolor) appear to be recolonizing the midwestern United States, there is concern that hunting in source populations (primarily the Black Hills, SD and WY, USA) may prevent cougars from dispersing eastward. We use carcass data of cougars (n =147 carcasses at known locations, of which 111 were of known sex) in the Midwest collected during 1990–2015 to quantify whether cougar hunting in the Black Hills affected cougar distribution and presence in the Midwest. We separated carcass data into 2 time periods: before hunting in the Black Hills (i.e., pre-hunt; 1990–2004) and after hunting (i.e., post-hunt; 2005–2015). We hypothesized that if hunting prevented dispersal into the Midwest, cougar distribution would be random and their presence less, relative to the pre-hunt period. We also were interested in sex ratios of carcasses over time, given the importance of that demographic metric to the potential establishment of viable populations. During the pre-hunt period, 25 carcasses were dispersed randomly in the Midwest. During the post-hunt period, we found nearly 4 times the number of carcasses in the Midwest (n = 86), carcasses were significantly clustered, and a greater percentage of carcasses were female (pre-hunt n = 6 [24%]; post-hunt n = 27 [31%]). Relative to the pre-hunt period, we observed a 460-km northward shift in the directional distribution of carcass locations during the post-hunt period. These findings do not support the idea that hunting in the Black Hills has prevented cougar presence from increasing in the Midwest. Alternatively, we suggest the potential for immigration from cougar populations farther to the west as an explanation for the increase in cougar presence (particularly females) confirmed after the initiation of cougar hunting in the Black Hills.

ContextEnsemble of small models (ESMs) is a technique to overcome the problem of few occurrence points. Applying the ESMs in a spatially hierarchical framework could increase the accuracy of predictions and conclusions by restricting available habitat at sequentially finer spatial scales.ObjectivesOur objective was to show how applying ESMs in a hierarchical habitat selection framework could help to understand rare species’ niches at various scales. We compared the accuracy of ESMs made by committee averaging and weighted averaging methods. We also compared the predictive power of ESMs made by various modeling techniques for Virginia’s warbler (Leiothlypis virginiae) at its northeastern range limit.MethodsWe defined biologically relevant hierarchical orders of habitat selection for Virginia’s warbler in the Black Hills, U.S.A. We modeled habitat suitabity at the broadest scale as a function of bioclimatic covariates and at finer scales as functions of landcover, soil group and landscape covariates.ResultsThe performance of modeling techniques varied among scales. Using the committee averaging method led to more accurate results than weighted averaging. At the broadest order, Virginia’s warbler had a narrow climatic niche. The importance of covariates changed across finer orders, such that at broader orders many covariates were important whereas at finer orders certain covariates became more important than others.ConclusionWe conclude that applying ESMs within a hierarchical framework can lead to detailed information about rare species’ niches, limiting factors at each habitat selection order, and potential distribution, which could help inform multiscale management.

The Black Hills population of black-backed woodpeckers (Picoides arcticus) was petitioned, but deemed not warranted, to be listed as a threatened or endangered species under the Endangered Species Act and more information on their population size in the region is needed. Our objective was to map abundance and provide a population estimate of black-backed woodpeckers in the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains of South Dakota and Wyoming, USA. We conducted 3,666 and 3,384 5-minute point count surveys from late-March to late-June in 2015 and 2016, respectively. We characterized vegetation around each point using geographic information system-derived landscape variables and fit 3-level hierarchical time-removal models in R package unmarked using gmultmix. The global abundance model received the most support and included year, latitude, and percent area of green trees, beetle-killed trees, dead trees, 1- to 2-year-old wildfire, 3-year-old wildfire, and 4- to 5-year-old wildfire. Points with high percent cover of beetle-killed trees had the greatest density of black-backed woodpeckers, followed by 1- to 2-year-old wildfires. After 4 years, areas burned by wildfire supported lower densities of black-backed woodpeckers than undisturbed forests. Mean density was 0.528 birds/km² in 2015 and 0.626 birds/km² in 2016. There were an estimated 2,920 and 3,439 black-backed woodpeckers in the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains in 2015 and 2016, respectively. We suggest areas with high percent cover of beetle-killed trees may support high densities of black-backed woodpeckers and are important to sustaining populations when the availability of recent (<4 years old) wildfire is declining or scarce.

In contrast to traditional structures of state-centric bureaucratic administration, hybrid networks of state and non-state actors are believed to possess the advantages of greater adaptability in the face of environmental change as well as greater legitimacy in contested socio-political settings. Between 1998 and 2016, pine forests throughout the western United States experienced the largest and most destructive outbreak of the native mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) on record, with most of the affected forests located on lands owned and managed by the U.S. government as national forests. Socio-political responses to this event in many geographies included the emergence of local to regional hybrid networks that provided direction and resources for responding to the disturbance event. In this study, we analyze the ability of governance networks to adapt in the face of the insect outbreak across four regional geographies: The Black Hills region of South Dakota and Wyoming; northern Colorado; northeastern Washington; and southwestern Montana. Specifically, we ask what factors accounted for divergent governance responses in the four cases and to what extent the emergent governance dynamics in each case facilitated lasting, long-term adaptation. Our results highlight governance trajectories as products of their respective histories and of feedback cycles among socio-political, institutional, and technological variables. By analyzing the origin, characteristics, and persistence of institutional change, this research contributes a comparative perspective on the adaptive potential of networks as functions of influences from multiple spatial and temporal scales.

Many North American birds associated with forest disturbances such as wildfire and mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) outbreaks are declining in abundance. More information on relationships between avian abundance and forest structure and disturbance is needed to guide conservation and management. Our objective was to determine densities of American Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides dorsalis), Black-backed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus), Red-breasted Nuthatch (Sitta canadensis), Brown Creeper (Certhia americana), and White-winged Junco (Junco hyemalis aikeni) in relation to vegetation characteristics and disturbance at the point and landscape level in the Black Hills and Bear Lodge Mountains of South Dakota and Wyoming. We conducted 3 point counts from late March to late June 2015 and 2016 at more than 2,300 locations distributed across a gradient of forest structure and disturbance types. We estimated densities using 3-level hierarchical time-removal models that simultaneously estimated abundance, availability, and detection probability. Black-backed Woodpeckers were positively related to percent area in 1- to 3-year-old wildfires and Brown Creepers were positively associated with percent area in 4- to 5-year-old wildfires; however, Red-breasted Nuthatches were negatively related to percent area in 3- to 5-year-old wildfires. With the exception of American Three-toed Woodpeckers, species were positively related to percent cover of beetle-killed trees. Brown Creepers, White-winged Juncos, and Red-breasted Nuthatches had mixed responses to percent overstory canopy cover. White-winged Juncos also had a positive association with percent ground vegetation at the point and landscape level. Brown Creepers were strongly linked with spruce vegetation type. American Three-toed Woodpeckers, which are thought to occupy spruce forest in the Black Hills, did not show a strong relationship with any covariates. Maintaining some areas of natural disturbances along with heterogeneity of vegetation characteristics within stands and at the landscape scale will benefit the needs of a diverse bird community in the Black Hills.

AIM: Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) experienced one of the most extensive and rapid post‐glacial plant migrations in western North America. We used plant macrofossils from woodrat (Neotoma) middens to reconstruct its spread in the Central Rocky Mountains, identify other vegetation changes coinciding with P. ponderosa expansion at the same sites, and relate P. ponderosa migrational history to both its modern phylogeography and to a parallel expansion by Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma). LOCATION: Central Rocky Mountains, Wyoming and Montana, and Black Hills, Wyoming and South Dakota, USA. METHODS: Plant macrofossils were analysed in 90 middens collected at 14 widely separated sites in the northern part of the range of P. ponderosa var. scopulorum. Middens with and without P. ponderosa were ¹⁴C dated to pinpoint time of appearance at each site. Sensitivity experiments using a bioclimatic model were used to evaluate potential climatic drivers of late Holocene expansion. RESULTS: Pinus ponderosa colonized the Black Hills region by at least 3850 yr bp (all ages given in calendar years before present). It expanded into the eastern Bighorn Mountains of northern Wyoming by 2630 yr bp, quickly spreading north in the western Bighorns from 1400 to 1000 yr bp. Concurrent with the latter expansion, P. ponderosa spread c. 350 km to the Little Belt and Big Belt Mountains in western Montana, establishing its northern limit and the modern introgression zone between var. scopulorum and var. ponderosa. Expansion in the Central Rockies of P. ponderosa involved two known haplotypes. MAIN CONCLUSIONS: Pinus ponderosa expanded its range across large parts of northern Wyoming and central Montana during the late Holocene, probably in response to both northward and westward increases in summer temperature and rainfall. The underlying climatic driver may be the same as for the contemporaneous expansion of J. osteosperma, but will remain undetermined without focused development and integration of independent palaeoclimate records in the region.

In temperate coniferous forests, biotic disturbances such as bark beetle outbreaks can result in widespread tree mortality. The characteristics of individual trees and stands, such as tree diameter and stand density, often influence the probability of tree mortality during a bark beetle outbreak. However, it is unclear if these relationships are mediated by climate. To test this, we assembled tree mortality data for over 3800 ponderosa pine trees from Forest Inventory and Analysis (FIA) plots measured before and after a mountain pine beetle outbreak in the Black Hills, South Dakota, USA. Logistic models were used to determine which tree, stand, and climate characteristics were associated with the probability of mortality. Interactions were tested between significant climate variables and significant tree/stand variables. Our analysis revealed that mortality rates were lower in trees with higher live crown ratios. Mortality rates rose in response to increasing tree diameter, stand basal area (both from ponderosa pine and non-ponderosa pine), and elevation. Below 1500 m, the mortality rate was ~1%, while above 1700 m, the rate increased to ~30%. However, the association between elevation and mortality risk was buffered by precipitation, such that relatively moist high-elevation stands experienced less mortality than relatively dry high-elevation stands. Tree diameter, crown ratio, and stand density affected tree mortality independent of precipitation. This study demonstrates that while stand characteristics affect tree susceptibility to bark beetles, these relationships may be mediated by climate. Thus, both site and stand level characteristics should be considered when implementing management treatments to reduce bark beetle susceptibility.