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Previous studies on Arnebia euchroma (Royle) Johnst. have focused on its physicochemical and pharmacological properties, and studies on the differences in metabolites in A. euchroma have also highlighted the effects of external environmental factors. In this study, we compared the differences in the diversity of endophytes in the root tissue of A. euchroma grown for 1–4 years in Hejing County using high-throughput sequencing and analyzed their relationship with eight secondary metabolites, including alkannin, β , β -dimethylacrylshikonin, deoxyshikonin, acetylshikonin, β -acetoxyisovalerylshikonin, β -hydroxyisovalerylshikonin, isobutyrylshikonin, and isovalerylshikonin. The results indicate that a total of 1161 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) of endophytic fungi from cultivated A. euchroma were classified into 12 phyla, 32 classes, 76 orders, 153 families, 259 genera, and 367 species. Additionally, 673 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) of endophytic bacteria were classified into 18 phyla, 37 classes, 89 orders, 139 families, 226 genera, and 267 species. The α-diversity of endophytic fungi and bacteria in cultivated A. euchroma peaked in four-year-old (X-4Z) and two-year-old (X-2Z) respectively. Spearman’s correlation analysis showed that β -hydroxyisovalerylshikonin, acetylshikonin, isobutyrylshikonin, β,β -dimethylacrylshikonin, and isovalerylshikonin were correlated with endophytic fungal diversity and abundance ( P ≤ 0.05 ). FUNGuild and PICRUSt2 predictive analyses showed that the dominant trophic modes of endophytic fungi in all samples were saprotrophic and pathotrophic, with the highest relative abundance in X-4Z, while the main trophic mode of endophytic bacteria was metabolic. Our results help to elucidate the importance of plant-microbe interactions and provide key information on the role of endophytes in promoting the cultivation of A. euchroma and the accumulation of its important secondary metabolites. They also provide a reference for further research on the effects of differences in the community composition of endophytes on the accumulation of medicinal compounds in A. euchroma and for the development of resources for its cultivation.

, a new species from the Muzhaling Scenic Area in Henan Province, China, is described and illustrated. It is morphologically similar to and but differs from the former in the size of the basal leaves, calyx size, color and size of the corolla, and length of the style; and from the latter in cauline petiole length, calyx size, color and size of the corolla, stamen insertion, filament length, and style length. Additionally, the conservation status and other pertinent notes are provided.

Background Lithospermeae is the largest tribe within Boraginaceae. The tribe has been the focus of multiple phylogenetic studies over the last 15 years, with most focused on one genus or a few genera. In the present study, we newly sequenced 69 species of Lithospermeae and relatives to analyze the phylogenomic relationships among its members as well as the evolution of the plastid genome. Results The phylogeny of Lithospermeae resolved from the plastid genome and nrDNA cistron is generally congruent with prior studies, but is better resolved and supported. Increasing character sampling across the plastid genome results in gradually more similar trees to that from the entire plastid genome. Overall, plastid genome structure was quite consistent across Lithospermeae. Codon Usage Bias (CUB) analyses demonstrate that across Lithospermeae plastid genomes were rich in AT and poor in GC. Mutation may play a greater role than selection across the plastid genome of Lithospermeae. The present study is the first to highlight the CUB characteristics of Lithospermeae species, which can help elucidate the mechanisms underlying patterns of molecular evolution and improve the expression levels of exogenous genes by codon optimization. Conclusions This study provides a comprehensive phylogenomic analysis of Lithospermeae, significantly enhancing our understanding of the phylogenetic relationships and plastid genome evolution within this largest tribe of Boraginaceae. By utilizing an expanded genomic sampling approach, we have achieved increased resolution and support among the evolutionary relationships of the tribe, in line with but improving upon previous studies. The analyses of plastid genome structure revealed consistency across Lithospermeae, with a notable CUB. This study marks the first investigation into the CUB of Lithospermeae species and sets the stage for further research on the molecular evolution of plastid genomes across Boraginaceae.

Context: The Boraginaceae family comprises plants that have important therapeutic and cosmetic applications. Their pharmacological effect is related to the presence of naphthaquinones, flavonoids, terpenoids, phenols, or purine derivative – allantoin.Objective: In the present study, comparison of some secondary metabolite content and phytochemical relationship between 17 species of the Boraginaceae family were analyzed.Materials and methods: High performance capillary electrophoresis (HPCE) was used to perform a chemometric analysis in the following Boraginaceae species: Anchusa azurea Mill., Anchusa undulata L., Borago officinalis L., Buglossoides purpurocaerulea (L.) I.M. Johnst., Cerinthe minor L., Cynoglossum creticum Mill, Echium italicum L., Echium russicum J.F. Gmel., Echium vulgare L., Lindelofia macrostyla (Bunge) Popov (syn. Lindelofia anchusoides (Lindl.) Lehm.), Lithospermum officinale L., Nonea lutea (Desr.) DC., Omphalodes verna Moench (syn. Cynoglossum omphaloides L.), Pulmonaria mollis Wulfen ex Hornem., Pulmonaria obscura Dumort., Symphytum cordatum Waldst. & Kit ex Willd., and Symphytum officinale L.Results: Six active compounds in shoot extracts (allantoin, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, rutin, hydrocaffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, and chlorogenic acid) and four compounds in root extracts (allantoin, hydrocaffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, and shikonin) were identified. The presence and abundance of these compounds were used for the characterization of the species and for revealing their phytochemical similarity and differentiation.Discussion and conclusion: The present study provides the first comprehensive report of the extraction and quantification of several compounds in Boraginaceae species (some of them for the first time). Among the 17 species studied, species with potentially high pharmacological activity were recognized.

Two taxonomic and nomenclatural issues in Lithospermum are addressed. The new combination L. thurberi based on Onosmodium thurberi is made, and L. macromeria (Macromeria viridiflora) is included as a heterotypic synonym. Lithospermum bejariense and Onosmodium bejariense are treated here as two distinct taxonomic entities.

Altered precipitation patterns associated with anthropogenic climate change are expected to have many effects on plants and insect pollinators, but it is unknown if effects on pollination are mediated by changes in water availability. We tested the hypothesis that impacts of climate on plant–pollinator interactions operate through changes in water availability, and specifically that such effects occur through alteration of floral attractants. We manipulated water availability in two naturally occurring Mertensia ciliata (Boraginaceae) populations using water addition, water reduction and control plots and measured effects on vegetative and floral traits, pollinator visitation and seed set. While most floral trait values, including corolla size and nectar, increased linearly with increasing water availability, in this bumblebee-pollinated species, pollinator visitation peaked at intermediate water levels. Visitation also peaked at an intermediate corolla length, while its relationship to corolla width varied across sites. Seed set, however, increased linearly with water. These results demonstrate the potential for changes in water availability to impact plant–pollinator interactions through pollinator responses to differences in floral attractants, and that the effects of water on pollinator visitation can be nonlinear. Plant responses to changes in resource availability may be an important mechanism by which climate change will affect species interactions.

Arnebia euchroma (Royle) Johnst. has high medicinal and economic value, but in recent years, wild resources of this species have been depleted and the quality of artificially cultivated A. euchroma has been poor. The endophyte community of medicinal plants is rich, serving as an internal resource that promotes the growth of medicinal plants and the accumulation of secondary metabolites, and has important potential application value in improving the quality of medicinal materials. A. euchroma cultivars and wild varieties contain abundant endophyte communities and metabolites in different tissues. However, the relationships between A. euchroma endophytes and metabolites with different growth patterns and different tissue sites remain unclear. In this study, microbiome analysis and metabolomics were used to analyze the diversity of endophytes in the root and leaf tissues of cultivated and wild A. euchroma and their correlations with metabolites. The results revealed that the diversity of endophytes in A. euchroma was different from that in wild A. euchroma and that there was tissue specificity among different tissues. A species composition analysis revealed that the dominant endophytic fungi belonged to Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, and the dominant endophytic bacteria belonged to Proteobacteria and Cyanobacteria. A total of 248 metabolites, including quinones, flavonoids, alkaloids, organic acids, sugars, amino acids, coumarins, sterols, terpenoids, polyphenols, fatty ketones, and their derivatives, were identified in positive ion mode via LC–MS/MS. According to their different growth patterns and associated tissue parts, 9 differentially abundant metabolites were screened between AEZ-L (cultivated leaf tissue of A. euchroma) and AEY-L (wild leaf tissue of A. euchroma), 6 differentially abundant metabolites were screened between AEZ-R (cultivated root tissue of A. euchroma) and AEY-R (wild root tissue of A. euchroma), and 104 differentially abundant metabolites were screened between AEZ-R and AEZ-L. Eighty-two differentially abundant metabolites were screened between AEY-R and AEY-L. The contents of eight naphthoquinones in AEZ-R and AEY-R were determined via HPLC. The contents of β,β’-dimethylacrylylakanin in wild A. euchroma were greater than those in cultivated A. euchroma. A correlation analysis revealed that the dominant endophytes in the four groups were significantly correlated with a variety of metabolites, and the eight naphthoquinones in the root tissue were also significantly correlated with the dominant endophytes. The diversity of the A. euchroma endophyte community differed across different growth patterns and different tissue parts. There were significant differences in the relative contents of A. euchroma metabolites in different tissues. A correlation analysis verified the correlation between A. euchroma endophytes and metabolites.

PREMISE OF THE STUDY: Populations of heterostylous species are characterized by two or three floral morphs with reciprocal positioning of stigmas and anthers. Theoretical models predict equal morph frequencies (isoplethy) when disassortative mating is prevalent in populations, but biased morph ratios may occur when variation in the expression of heterostyly causes deviations from intermorph mating. METHODS: We explore the role of sex‐organ deployment in governing morph ratios in two closely related genera of Boraginaceae, exhibiting striking variation in floral traits associated with the heterostylous syndrome. We sampled 66 populations of six species of Glandora and 39 populations of three species of Lithodora across their distributional range in the Mediterranean. In each population we estimated morph ratios and measured several floral traits. We used phylogenetically corrected and noncorrected regressions to test the hypothesis that differences in sex‐organ reciprocity and herkogamy are associated with deviations from isoplethy. KEY RESULTS: Biased morph ratios occurred in 24% of populations, particularly in Lithodora. Populations biased for the long‐styled morph (L‐morph) were more frequent than the short‐styled morph (S‐morph). Distylous species were less likely to exhibit biased ratios than species with stigma‐height dimorphism. In Lithodora fruticosa, a species lacking reciprocity, decreased herkogamy in the S‐morph was associated with increasing L‐morph bias, perhaps resulting from self‐interference. CONCLUSION: Striking variation in the expression of heterostyly in Glandora and Lithodora is associated with biased morph ratios, which probably result from pollinator‐mediated mating asymmetries within populations.

Trigonotis cavaleriei is a representative species of the Boraginaceae family, renowned for its edible and medicinal properties. However, the chloroplast genome of T. cavaleriei remains poorly characterised. In this study, the complete chloroplast genome of T. cavaleriei was sequenced using the Illumina NovaSeq 6000 platform. Subsequently, the genome was subsequently assembled, annotated, and subjected to comparative analysis. The results indicated that the T. cavaleriei chloroplast genome is 148 554 base pairs in length and has a GC content of 37.60%. The circular genome displays a typical quadripartite structure, comprising 112 genes, including four rRNAs, 30 tRNAs, and 85 protein-coding genes. The phylogenetic tree illustrates that Trigonotis species are divided into two clades. T. cavaleriei exhibits a relatively close relationship with T. laxa, which was also divided into different clades with Lappula myosotis in the Boraginaceae family. The analysis of the T. cavaleriei chloroplast genome contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of the evolutionary relationships among the Boraginaceae family.

Shikonin and its derivatives are the most abundant naphthoquinone pigments formed in species of the medicinally and economically valuable Boraginaceae. A key step in the shikonin biosynthetic pathway, namely the C-3ʹʹ hydroxylation of the prenylated phenolic intermediate geranylhydroquinone, is expected to be catalyzed by a cytochrome P450. To identify cytochrome P450 candidates with transcription profiles similar to those of genes known to be involved in shikonin biosynthesis, we carried out coexpression analysis of transcriptome data sets of shikonin-proficient and shikonin-deficient cell lines and examined the spatial expression of candidate genes in different organs of Arnebia euchroma. In biochemical assays using geranylhydroquinone as the substrate, CYP76B74 exhibited geranylhydroquinone 3ʹʹ-hydroxylase activity and produced 3ʹʹ-hydroxy-geranylhydroquinone. In CYP76B74 RNA interference A. euchroma hairy roots, shikonin derivative accumulation decreased dramatically, which demonstrated that CYP76B74 is required for shikonin biosynthesis in the plant. Phylogenetic analysis confirmed that CYP76B74 belonged to the CYP76B subfamily and was most likely derived from an ancestral geraniol 10-hydroxylase. In a subcellular localization analysis, a GFP-CYP76B74 fusion localized to endoplasmic reticulum membranes. Our results demonstrate that CYP76B74 catalyzes the key hydroxylation step in shikonin biosynthesis with high efficiency. The characterization of the CYP76B74 described here paves the way for further exploration of the ring closure reactions generating the naphthoquinone skeleton as well as for the alternative metabolism of geranylhydroquinone 3ʹʹ-hydroxylase to dihydroechinofuran.