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"Botswana Emigration and immigration."
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Survival Migration
International treaties, conventions, and organizations to protect refugees were established in the aftermath of World War II to protect people escaping targeted persecution by their own governments. However, the nature of cross-border displacement has transformed dramatically since then. Such threats as environmental change, food insecurity, and generalized violence force massive numbers of people to flee states that are unable or unwilling to ensure their basic rights, as do conditions in failed and fragile states that make possible human rights deprivations. Because these reasons do not meet the legal understanding of persecution, the victims of these circumstances are not usually recognized as \"refugees,\" preventing current institutions from ensuring their protection. In this book, Alexander Betts develops the concept of \"survival migration\" to highlight the crisis in which these people find themselves.
Examining flight from three of the most fragile states in Africa-Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Somalia-Betts explains variation in institutional responses across the neighboring host states. There is massive inconsistency. Some survival migrants are offered asylum as refugees; others are rounded up, detained, and deported, often in brutal conditions. The inadequacies of the current refugee regime are a disaster for human rights and gravely threaten international security. InSurvival Migration, Betts outlines these failings, illustrates the enormous human suffering that results, and argues strongly for an expansion of protected categories.
eBook
Y-Chromosomal Variation in Sub-Saharan Africa: Insights Into the History of Niger-Congo Groups
Technological and cultural innovations as well as climate changes are thought to have influenced the diffusion of major language phyla in sub-Saharan Africa. The most widespread and the richest in diversity is the Niger-Congo phylum, thought to have originated in West Africa ∼10,000 years ago (ya). The expansion of Bantu languages (a family within the Niger-Congo phylum) ∼5,000 ya represents a major event in the past demography of the continent. Many previous studies on Y chromosomal variation in Africa associated the Bantu expansion with haplogroup E1b1a (and sometimes its sublineage E1b1a7). However, the distribution of these two lineages extends far beyond the area occupied nowadays by Bantu-speaking people, raising questions on the actual genetic structure behind this expansion. To address these issues, we directly genotyped 31 biallelic markers and 12 microsatellites on the Y chromosome in 1,195 individuals of African ancestry focusing on areas that were previously poorly characterized (Botswana, Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Zambia). With the inclusion of published data, we analyzed 2,736 individuals from 26 groups representing all linguistic phyla and covering a large portion of sub-Saharan Africa. Within the Niger-Congo phylum, we ascertain for the first time differences in haplogroup composition between Bantu and non-Bantu groups via two markers (U174 and U175) on the background of haplogroup E1b1a (and E1b1a7), which were directly genotyped in our samples and for which genotypes were inferred from published data using linear discriminant analysis on short tandem repeat (STR) haplotypes. No reduction in STR diversity levels was found across the Bantu groups, suggesting the absence of serial founder effects. In addition, the homogeneity of haplogroup composition and pattern of haplotype sharing between Western and Eastern Bantu groups suggests that their expansion throughout sub-Saharan Africa reflects a rapid spread followed by backward and forward migrations. Overall, we found that linguistic affiliations played a notable role in shaping sub-Saharan African Y chromosomal diversity, although the impact of geography is clearly discernible.
Journal Article
International Migration and National Development in sub-Saharan Africa
This book focuses on achieving a better understanding of the implications of international migration for national development from the perspective of the sending countries (with an emphasis on sub-Saharan Africa). More specifically, the purpose of this volume is to explore (1) current perceptions - as seen from the perspective of the countries of origin - of the links between international migration and national development, and (2) current trends in policy making aimed at minimising the negative effects, while optimising the development impact.
eBook
The Inevitable Pipeline into Exile
The role played by Botswana in various southern African liberation struggles has previously been neglected in historical studies. The country’s politics of support and mobilisation early on in Namibia’s struggle for independence from South Africa proved crucial for the formative period of both nation states. Botswana’s difficult and contradictory position as neighbour of the South African apartheid state and colonial power in Namibia are carefully dealt with, as are the challenges faced by the fragile Namibian refugee networks and liberation movements, SWANU and SWAPO, operating in Botswana for decades. “The Inevitable Pipeline into Exile” deals with a crucial phase of nationalism and transnational politics during the period of southern African decolonisation at the height of South Africa’s diplomatic and military aggression throughout the region.
eBook
Quantifying disturbance resistance in an ecologically dominant species: a robust design analysis
Disturbance is now recognized as a key ecosystem process but few studies have examined its indirect effects on individuals in a population or its relationship to ecological dominance in a community. Using an ecologically dominant small mammal population in experimentally burned habitat as a model, I empirically tested the effect of disturbance on survival, abundance and fecundity and investigated whether recently burned habitat is a population sink. I also examined the effect of fire on community diversity, particularly how fire influenced dominance by bushveld gerbils Tatera leucogaster (Peters 1852). Live trapping in the first year post-fire yielded a total of 4,774 captures of 1,076 individual bushveld gerbils in a tropical savanna in southern Africa. The robust design allowed for an investigation of the effects of fire, sex and temporal variation on survival while controlling for potential differences in detection and temporary emigration. Although there were fewer individuals in burned savanna during the first 6 months post-fire, their apparent monthly survival was not significantly lowered compared with the control, with males and females surviving equally well. Fecundity, represented by proportion of females lactating, was unaffected by fire and, overall, recently burned habitat does not appear to be sink habitat. The disturbance resistance exhibited by this species is likely a contributing factor to its ecological dominance in the area, which is subject to relatively frequent fires. Results of this study highlight the need to consider disturbance regimes when evaluating patterns of species richness and evenness in an ecosystem.
Journal Article
Transforming settlement in southern Africa
This volume examines the ways in which changing political and economic processes impact upon patterns of population movement and settlement, focussing on the southern African region.
eBook
Population Mobility and Multi-Partner Sex in Botswana: Implications for the Spread of HIV/AIDS
For cultural and economic reasons, Botswana has one of the most mobile populations in the world. People move around the country frequently for employment opportunities and because of the nature of the settlement patterns. Also, there is extensive multi-partner sexual activity in the country. This study analyses the relationship between population mobility and multi-partner sex and their implications for the spread of HIV and AIDS in Botswana. The unit of analysis is a sample of 292 mobile workers working in rural and urban settings in four selected districts of the country. /// Pour des raisons culturelles et économiques le Botswana a une des populations les plus mobiles du monde. Les gens se déplacement fréquemment autour du pays à la recherche de l'emploi et à cause de la nature des habitations. Il y a aussi beaucoup d'activités sexuelles multi-partenaires dans le pays. Cette étude fait une analyse du rapport entre la mobilité de la population et les rapports sexuels multi-partenaires ainsi que leurs implications pour la propagation du VIH et du SIDA au Botswana. L'unité d'analyse est un échantillon de 292 travailleurs dans les cadres ruraux et urbains dans quatre régions selectionnées du pays.
Journal Article
Emigration to South Africa's Mines
Temporary labor migration from five countries to South Africa's mines is examined. Emigration (a) diminishes domestic crop production in the short run; (b) enhances crop productivity and cattle accumulation through invested remittances in the long run; (c) increases domestic plantation wages. Conflicting interests thus exist between employers in the sending countries and in the mines. State intervention adopted in the sending countries includes forced labor, emigration quotas, and compulsory population relocation.
Journal Article
Outcomes of Social and Environmental Change in the Kalahari of Botswana: the Role of Migration
Migration now features prominently both in poverty-reduction discourses, as a 'tool' for reconciling rural populations with available resources, and in sustainable livelihoods debates, as a 'coping strategy' employed in times of livelihood stress. This paper assesses the contemporary significance of migration as populations are affected by the dual impacts of natural environmental variability and structural land-use change in the Kalahari of Botswana. Three study areas, located across the arid to dry-sub-humid climatic gradient, were investigated. These had been redesignated as commercial ranching areas under the Tribal Grazing Lands Policy of 1975. Under this policy, pre-existing populations were to be resettled in specially designated Service Centres that were expected to reduce poverty and improve livelihood opportunities and household food security. The findings of this study reveal that the policy was accompanied by extensive population displacement rather than migration per se as ranch owners exercised their exclusive rights to the land. While some ranch populations moved to Service Centres, lack of infrastructure and alternative livelihood opportunities forced many of them back into ranch areas where many now live as squatters dependent on the goodwill of ranch owners. Thus the policy has not resulted in envisaged sedentarisation but instead has produced a population of transients involved in a number of highly localised moves. The mobility patterns of absent householders provided some evidence to suggest that, despite rapid urbanisation, rural to urban migration from the study areas was limited, as were associated remittance ows, suggesting that TGLP areas may not be currently integrated within a national migration system. There were significant differences in the implementation of the policy between study areas and these differences have had a considerable bearing on the population's ability to respond to environmental variability. In one of the Study Areas (Ncojane), severe drought has resulted in a more flexible implementation of ranches: fences had been taken down, and people and cattle were able to move between ranches in search of water and veld products. Population mobility here was thus a significant coping strategy, ironically where commercial ranch owners had reverted back to the old cattle-post system which emphasises circulation and reciprocity.
Journal Article