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Combat sports, encompassing a range of activities from striking and grappling to mixed and weapon-based disciplines, have witnessed a surge in popularity worldwide. These sports are demanding, requiring athletes to harness energy from different metabolic pathways to perform short, high-intensity activities interspersed with periods of lower intensity. While it is established that the anaerobic alactic (ATP-PC) and anaerobic lactic systems are pivotal for high-intensity training sessions typical in combat sports, the precise contribution of these systems, particularly in varied training modalities such as single (SMT) and intermittent (IST) forms of the 30-second Wingate test, remains inadequately explored. This study aims at comparing performance outputs, physiological responses and gender differences during the SMT and IST forms of the 30-second Wingate test. Thirty-three highly trained combat sports athletes (17 women, 16 men; 10 boxing, 8 wrestling, 8 taekwondo and 7 karate) randomly performed SMT and IST. The IST consisted of three 10-second all-out attempts separated by 30 seconds of passive recovery, whereas the SMT was a single 30-second maximal effort. Resting, exercise and post-exercise oxygen uptake and peak blood lactate value were used to determine the metabolic energy demands via the PCr-LA-O 2 method. The findings showed that total metabolic energy expenditure (TEE), ATP-PCr system contribution and the output of mechanical variables were higher in the IST than in the SMT form (all p<0.001). In contrast, the contribution of glycolytic and oxidative systems was higher in the SMT form (all p<0.001). However, exercise form and gender interaction were not significant (p>0.05). In combat sports, performance is not only determined by physiological and technical skills but also by metabolic energy input and efficiency. Therefore, our results can provide a comparison regarding the effects of exercise type and gender on metabolic energy metabolism to design the training of combat sports athletes.

Despite the prevalence of combat sports research, a comparative analysis of backward straight punches and sEMG activation across different martial arts disciplines remains unexplored. This study examines the impact force and sEMG characteristics of backward straight punches among athletes from Boxing, Tao Lu (Chinese Wushu), Karate, and a control group (Physical Education students) under randomized signal stimulation. Twenty-eight participants performed backward straight punches while impact force and muscle activation were recorded using a pendulum system and a 16-channel Noraxon wireless sEMG system. Results indicate that the Boxing group exhibited the highest impact force (3.96 ± 0.45 times body weight), followed by the Tao Lu, Karate, and Control groups. Muscle activation patterns varied significantly among groups, with a moderate positive correlation between impact force and the deltoid ( r  = 0.535) and brachioradialis ( r  = 0.365) muscle groups. The findings highlight differences in combat philosophies, with Boxing emphasizing effectiveness, Wushu and Karate focusing on controlled strikes, and Tao Lu prioritizing precision. These insights provide a biomechanical understanding of combat sports techniques, suggesting tailored training strategies for optimizing striking performance.

Siegler, JC and Hirscher, K. Sodium bicarbonate ingestion and boxing performance. J Strength Cond Res 24(1)103-108, 2010-Boxing is a sport that consists of multiple high-intensity bouts separated by minimal recovery time and may benefit from a pre-exercise alkalotic state. The purpose of this study was to observe the ergogenic potential of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) ingestion on boxing performance. Ten amateur boxers volunteered to participate in 2 competitive sparring bouts. The boxers were prematched for weight and boxing ability and consumed either 0.3 g·kg body weight (BW) of NaHCO3 (BICARB) or 0.045 g·kg BW of NaCl placebo (PLAC) mixed in diluted low calorie-flavored cordial. The sparring bouts consisted of four 3-minute rounds, each separated by 1-minute seated recovery. Blood acid-base (pH, bicarbonate [HCO3], base excess [BE]), and performance (rates of perceived exertion [RPE], heart rate [HR] [HRave and HRmax], total punches landed successfully) profiles were analyzed before (where applicable) and after sparring. The results indicated a significant interaction effect for HCO3 (p ≤ 0.001) and BE (p < 0.001), but not for pH (p = 0.48). Post hoc analysis revealed higher presparring HCO3 and BE for the BICARB condition, but no differences between the BICARB and PLAC conditions postsparring. There was a significant increase in punches landed during the BICARB condition (p < 0.001); however, no significant interaction effects for HRave (p = 0.15), HRmax (p = 0.32), or RPE (p = 0.38). The metabolic alkalosis induced by the NaHCO3 loading elevated before and after sparring blood buffering capacity. In practical application, the findings suggest that a standard NaHCO3 loading dose (0.3 g·kg) improves punch efficacy during 4 rounds of sparring performance.

Boxing is one of the oldest combat sports. The aim of the current review is to critically analyze the amateur boxer’s physical and physiological characteristics and to provide practical recommendations for training as well as new areas of scientific research. High-level male and female boxers show a propensity for low body fat levels. Although studies on boxer somatotypes are limited, the available information shows that elite-level male boxers are characterized by a higher proportion of mesomorphy with a well-developed muscle mass and a low body fat level. To help support the overall metabolic demands of a boxing match and to accelerate the recovery process between rounds, athletes of both sexes require a high level of cardiorespiratory fitness. International boxers show a high peak and mean anaerobic power output. Muscle strength in both the upper and lower limbs is paramount for a fighter’s victory and is one of the keys to success in boxing. As boxing punches are brief actions and very dynamic, high-level boxing performance requires well-developed muscle power in both the upper and lower limbs. Albeit limited, the available studies reveal that isometric strength is linked to high-level boxing performance. Future investigations into the physical and physiological attributes of boxers are required to enrich the current data set and to help create a suitable training program.

Purpose Professional boxing is a sport that requires a high aerobic capacity to prevent fatigue and allow athletes to perform over 4–12 rounds. Typically, athletes will go into a heavy training period in a pre-bout camp lasting 6 to 9 weeks. This study investigates the impact of 3 weeks of repeated Wingate sprint interval training, performed on standard gym ergometer bikes, on skeletal muscle endurance and mitochondrial function. Methods Ten male professional boxers (age: 26 ± 4 years, height: 175 ± 5 cm, weight: 70 ± 5 kg) participated in the study. Baseline testing involved a NIRS monitor attached to the rectus femoris muscle prior to an incremental time to exhaustion test on a treadmill. After the treadmill test participants underwent a series of arterial occlusions to determine mitochondrial function post-volitional exhaustion. Participants then continued their own training for 3 weeks and then repeated baseline testing. After the second testing session, participants undertook three weekly sprint sessions consisting of 3 × 30 s maximal sprints with 60 s recovery. Testing was repeated 3 weeks later. Results The time to exhaustion increased by > 6% after 3 weeks of sprint interval training as compared to baseline and control ( p  < 0.05). Skeletal muscle oxygen saturation (SmO 2 ) at exhaustion was increased by 5.5% after 3 weeks of sprint interval training as compared to baseline and control ( p  = 0.008). Skeletal muscle mitochondrial rate post exhaustion was increased by 160% after 3 weeks of sprint interval training as compared to baseline and control ( p  < 0.001). Conclusion The study demonstrated that SIT led to increased incremental time to exhaustion, higher SmO 2 levels at volitional exhaustion and increased mitochondrial rates in professional boxers. These findings suggest that SIT should be an integral part of a boxe’s conditioning regimen to improve performance and safety within the ring.

Objective: The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of back squat (BS) and squat jump (SJ) on the maximum-striking strength and speed-striking strength of the jab and cross of elite male boxers, and to identify the time point of the post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) induced by these two activation methods. Methods: A total of 29 Chinese male boxers were recruited to participate in four different intensities of muscle activation through BS and SJ exercises (BS50%, SJ50%, BS80%, SJ80%). The participants were tested on their jab and cross using specialized testing protocols at recovery intervals of 4, 8, 12, and 16 min (speed-striking strength testing was conducted first, followed by maximum-striking strength testing), and the maximum-striking strength and speed-striking strength of the athletes were recorded. Results: (1) Maximum-striking strength: For the jab, the results indicated that there were significant differences between BS50% at 8 min and 12 min and the baseline (p < 0.01), and between SJ50% at 4, 8, and 12 min and the baseline (p < 0.01). BS80% showed significant differences at 12 min compared to baseline (p < 0.01), and the SJ80% exhibited significant differences at 8 min (p < 0.05) and 12 min (p < 0.01) compared to baseline. For the cross, BS50% demonstrated significant differences at 12 min compared to baseline (p < 0.01), and SJ50% showed significant differences at 8 min and 12 min (p < 0.01). Both BS80% and SJ80% revealed significant differences at 8, 12, and 16 min compared to baseline (p < 0.01). (2) Speed-striking strength: For the jab, there were no significant differences between BS50% and SJ50% at all time intervals compared to baseline (p > 0.05). BS80% showed a significant difference at 4 min compared to baseline (p < 0.05), and SJ80% exhibited significant differences at 12 min compared to baseline (p < 0.01). For the cross, there were no significant differences between BS50%, SJ50%, and BS80% at all time intervals compared to baseline (p > 0.05), while SJ80% demonstrated significant differences at 8 min and 12 min compared to between (p < 0.01). The results showed that PAPE significantly enhanced maximum punch force at 8–12 min across several activation conditions. In contrast, improvements in speed-striking force were only observed following high-load squat jump (SJ at 80% 1 RM), with significant increases at 8 min for the cross and at 12 min for the jab, whereas BS or lower-load SJ produced no meaningful changes. Conclusions: PAPE activation significantly enhances the striking force of boxers at the recovery interval of 12 min, but the effect is influenced by the intensity and method of activation. High-load activation can enhance the striking strength of boxers more rapidly and sustainably, and high-load SJ are more beneficial for the speed-striking strength of boxers.

Motor imagery (MI) or post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) have shown acute benefits for sports performance. The aim of the present study was to investigate the cumulative effects of MI and PAPE when combined within a warm-up routine. Ten men boxers participated in this study. They underwent four experimental sessions composed of a standardized warm-up followed by 1) maximal leg press extensions (CONTROL-PAPE), 2) mental imagery of force and sprint tasks (CONTROL-MI), 3) maximal leg press extensions followed by mental imagery of force and sprint tasks (PAPE-MI) and 4) mental imagery of force and sprint tasks followed by then maximal leg press extensions (MI-PAPE). Post-tests consisted of boxing reaction time, average and maximal boxing force, maximal handgrip strength, repeated sprint ability and the NASA-TLX fatigue questionnaire. No difference was obtained between PAPE-MI and MI-PAPE for the different measurements. Compared to CONTROL-PAPE and CONTROL-MI, both the PAPE-MI and MI-PAPE significantly enhanced boxing average force (P < 0.05) and repeated sprint ability (P < 0.01). Compared to CONTROL-PAPE, both the PAPE-MI and MI-PAPE increased boxing reaction time (P < 0.05), PAPE-MI increased the handgrip strength (P < 0.05) and MI-PAPE increased boxing maximal force (P < 0.01). Compared to CONTROL-MI, both the PAPE-MI and MI-PAPE increased boxing maximal force (P < 0.001), handgrip strength (0 < 0.01) and MI-PAPE increased boxing reaction time (P < 0.05). The NASA-TLX questionnaire was not affected by the warm-up modalities (P = 0.442). Combining PAPE-MI and MI-PAPE protocols within the warm-up produced cumulative positive effects on acute muscular performance without increasing subjective fatigue. PAPE-MI and MI-PAPE are both interesting modalities for optimizing warm-up routines.

There is little systematic research on how the training load of an athlete in the preparatory period affects their functional state. This study aims to develop and test a new targeted training method for improving the functional state of boxers aged 15–16 (15.6 ± 0.5) years using heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback. A total of 50 teenage male athletes participated in the study. The proposed program involved biofeedback-based physical training coupled with breathing and emotional regulation exercises. Here, the functional status assessment involved psychological (attention, working memory, physiological stress), neurodynamic (simple sensorimotor reaction, maximal voluntary strength, strength endurance of the wrist flexor muscles), and neurovegetative (stress index, reactivity and tension indicators of regulatory systems) variables. The results demonstrated significant improvements in attention (Cohen’s d = 3.85) and working memory (Cohen’s d = 2.12) and a decrease in physiological stress (Cohen’s d = 0.87) in the HRV-BF group compared to the control group. The proposed framework can be integrated into boxer training programs in youth sports schools and specialized training centers, as it contributes not only to enhancing cognitive characteristics but also to optimizing neurovegetative balance through the reduction of physiological stress. Future research should focus on clarifying the effectiveness of HRV-BF in sustaining the stability of regulatory systems under conditions of intensive physical load.

Athletes in certain sports aim to gain an advantage by competing in a lower body mass class instead of competing in their own body mass class. This study aims to reveal certain physiologic and strength changes in elite male boxers who lost body mass rapidly before the competition. 30 thirty boxers who were aged between 19-24 years and having a mean age of 7.4 years participated in the study. To evaluate the effect of short-term dietary intake interventions on body composition and muscle strength before the competition, boxers were divided into three groups: control (C), exercise+diet1 (E+D1) and exercise+diet2 (E+D2) groups. The dietary habits of the participants were controlled and they participated in the training program. The data of the study consisted of variables such as body mass, height, regional muscle mass, body fat percentage, biceps and femur bicondylar circumference measurements before the competitions. Isometric strength measurements of knee extensors and flexors and shoulder internal and external rotators were also recorded. Physiologic parameters such as body mass change, BMI level, body fat percentage and leg muscle ratios of E+D2 were significantly decreased compared to C and E+D1 groups. Furthermore, submaximal and maximal strength production in knee extensors and flexors as well as shoulder internal and external rotators were significantly decreased in E+D2 compared to C and E+D1 groups. The tendency to lose body mass quickly in a short of time may give the desired results in terms of BMI, body mass and fat percentage, but it may cause strength losses in boxers during the competition period.

Physical exertion causes significant changes in the rheological properties of blood. Combat sports require athletes to engage in dynamic bouts based on direct confrontation. The aim of this study was to compare the rheological properties of blood before and after confrontation (simulated sparring) in combat sports athletes (Boxing vs MMA) and to compare these with a control group of non-training individuals. The study was conducted on a population of 32 combat sports athletes: 82.06 ± 10.22 kg; 177.41 ± 6.74 cm; BMI 26.03 ± 2.61; age 29.35 ± 5.74 years; training experience 9.47 ± 3.14 years (Boxers group n = 16; MMA group n = 16), all of whom exhibited a high level of athletic performance with regular competition participation. Simulated sparring sessions were conducted, and blood samples were taken before and after the intervention. The blood parameter results were also compared with a control group: 86.97 ± 9.47 kg; 177.31 ± 6.91 cm; BMI 27.64 ± 2.39; age 29.65 ± 5.68 years. In the study, comparing the Boxers pre vs. control group and Boxers post vs. control group showed an increase in elongation index at shear stress 4.24, 8.23, 15.95, 30.94, and 60.00 Pa and a decrease in EI at shear stress 0.58, along with an increase in fibrinogen. For blood morphology indices in the Boxers group compared to the control group, there was an increase in MCV, RDW, WBC, LYM, MON, GRA, PCT, and MPV, with higher values noted for Boxers, and a decrease in MCHC and PDW. Similar trends were observed in blood morphology indices when comparing Boxers pre vs. Boxers post simulated sparring. There was an increase in WBC, LYM, MON, PLT, and PCT after simulated sparring and a decrease in EI at shear stress 2.19. Analyzing the results comparing MMA pre vs. control group and MMA post vs. control group, higher values were observed in the MMA group for MCV, WBC, LYM, GRA, PCT, EI at shear stress 30.94 and 60.00, and fibrinogen. Conversely, in the MMA pre vs. control group and MMA post vs. control group, lower values were found for EI at shear stress 0.58 and 1.13. Comparing MMA pre vs. MMA post fight, blood morphology indices were significantly higher in athletes after simulated sparring, with a significant increase in AI after intervention. MMA fights are often longer and more intense than boxing matches, which in turn affects the rheological properties of blood. This is confirmed by the results showing a decrease in red blood cell deformability in the MMA group compared to Boxers, with no changes in AI, AMP, T1/2, blood plasma viscosity, and fibrinogen. The rheological indices of blood indicate that MMA fights have a more negative impact on blood flow compared to boxing matches.