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Sensitivity analysis is useful to downgrade/upgrade the number of inputs to limit greenhouse emissions and enhance crop yield. The primary data from the 300 rice (grain crop) and 300 cotton (cash crop) farmers were gathered in face-to-face interviews by applying a multistage random sampling technique using a well-structured pretested questionnaire. Energy use efficiency was estimated with data envelopment analysis (DEA) model, and a second-stage regression analysis was conducted by applying Cobb–Douglas production function to evaluate the influencing factors affecting. The results exhibit that chemical fertilizers, diesel fuel and water for irrigation are the major energy inputs that are accounted to be 15,721.55, 10,787.50 and 6411.08 MJ ha −1 for rice production, while for cotton diesel fuel, chemical fertilizer and water for irrigation were calculated to be 13,860.94, 12,691.10 and 4456.34 MJ ha −1 , respectively. Total GHGs emissions were found to be 920.69 and 954.71 kg CO 2eq ha −1 from rice and cotton productions, respectively. Energy use efficiency (1.33 and 1.53), specific energy (11.03 and 7.69 MJ ha −1 ), energy productivity (0.09 and 0.13 kg MJ −1 ) and energy gained (14,497.85 and 20,047.56 MJ ha −1 ) for rice and cotton crop, respectively. Moreover, the results obtained through the second-stage regression analysis revealed that excessive application of fertilizer had a negative impact on the yield of rice and cotton, while farm machinery, diesel fuel and biocides had a positive effect. We hope that these findings could help in the management of the energy budget that we believe will reduce the high emissions of GHGs to address the growing environmental hazards.

In the context of increasing pressure on agricultural resources, hydroponic systems such as the nutrient film technique (NFT) are gaining prominence for their ability to optimize water use and space efficiency, and crop productivity in controlled environments. Lettuce ( L.), a high-value leafy vegetable, is a key cash crop in controlled-environment agriculture. Light quality and intensity -critical drivers of plant physiology- require constant monitoring in soilless systems to ensure consistent performance. However, the interaction effects of NFT system design and cultivar selection on physiological behavior and yield stability remain underexplored. This study evaluated the growth, yield, and physiological responses of two lettuce cultivars, Tropicana and Starfighter, cultivated in three NFT configurations: module I (8-channel) with a horizontal layout; and module II (13-channel) and module III (10-channel), both with pyramidal layouts. Although all the treatments were exposed to similar microenvironmental conditions, the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) was monitored throughout the crop cycle to maintain light uniformity. Agronomic performance was evaluated through biometric parameters in roots, stems, leaves and heads, and the yield was calculated per unit area; while the physiological responses included measurements of relative and total chlorophyll content and nitrate reductase enzymatic activity. Tropicana generally outperformed Starfighter, particularly in modules II and III, which also supported higher pigment accumulation and improved nitrogen metabolism across both cultivars. The highest yields were achieved by Tropicana in modules II (14.14 kg·m ) and III (13.96 kg·m ), closely followed by Starfighter in module II (13.45 kg·m ). These findings highlight how strategic integration of system configuration and cultivar selection can increase physiological efficiency, stabilize yields, and promote sustainability in hydroponic lettuce production.

The rate of pennycress residue decomposition and mineralization is critical in determining potential nutrient availability for following crops. To better understand pennycress decomposition, we examined biomass, nitrogen, and carbon loss from wild pennycress, gene edited AOP2 knockout pennycress, annual ryegrass, and cereal rye. Biomass was collected from all crops at the time of cash crop planting, and 20 g of biomass was placed in individual mesh forage bags (50 ± 10 mm). We placed 99 bags from each crop between rows of corn (n = 5) on the soil surface of the dominant soil types (SA and DR) at the ISU farm. Replicate bags were collected from each soil type over the following 84 days, weighed for biomass, and analyzed for carbon and nitrogen in the plant residue. Loss of biomass differed by crop and soil type (F = 3.7 3,32 , p = 0.023) with annual ryegrass losing biomass most rapidly followed by cereal rye, wild-type pennycress, and the domesticated low glucosinolate, AOP2 knockout, pennycress. Nitrogen (F = 8.5 3,36 , p < 0.0001) and carbon (F = 67.5 3,36 , p < 0.0001) losses differed by crop and not soil type following a similar trend as biomass loss. Our results suggest that both wild-type and AOP2 knockout pennycress can be expected to decompose similarly to a rye cover crop but with slower nutrient loss. Pennycress has potential to act as an effective short-term nutrient sink in agroecosystems.

In tropical forest regions, swidden cultivation landscapes are experiencing land use transitions due to factors such as the introduction of cash crops, land tenure conflicts, and land use zoning for conservation. In northern Thailand, Nan Province, the introduction of maize as a cash crop in a landscape previously dominated by swidden cultivation has caused rapid forest loss. In the past decade, several land use interventions by government and non-government organizations were aimed at reducing forest loss and sustaining livelihoods of local communities. We analyzed how much of the recent forest loss was caused by new forest conversion versus a transition from swidden to permanent cultivation, and how effective are the recent land use interventions at conserving forests. We used classified Landsat images from 2000 to 2019 to understand land cover transitions and a matching technique based on the synthetic control method to evaluate the impact of project interventions on forest loss. We found that 20% of the land cover has undergone changes of which 41% were due to loss of forest, and 31% to swidden cultivation. Out of 55 villages with a land use intervention, only 3 have reduced forest loss as compared to their synthetic controls. Most of the villages with an intervention have similar rates of forest loss than their synthetic controls. Therefore, current land use projects have not yet contributed towards reduction in forest loss. Interviews with project leaders reveal that long-term funding, cooperation with local communities, and training and support of farmers to market new crops are key for successful interventions.

Spodoptera frugiperda is a significant migratory invasive pest, identified as a serious threat to agricultural production and food security in China. However, to our knowledge, the effects of most host plants on the biological characteristics of S. frugiperda have not been well studied. To develop effective management strategies for S. frugiperda in its new invasive habitat, basic biological and ecological knowledge of this pest are crucial requirements. Here, we examined the effects of six cash crops maize, wheat, soybean, tomato, cotton and Chinese cabbage on the development, survival, fecundity of S. frugiperda by using the age-stage, two-sex life table. The preadult stage, adult preoviposition period and total preoviposition period of S. frugiperda were shortest on maize and wheat but were longest on tomato. Fecundity was greatest on maize and wheat but smallest on tomato. The highest intrinsic rate of increase, finite rate of increase, net reproductive rate and the shortest mean generation time were recorded on maize. This present study showed that S. frugiperda could cause great economic losses to these cash crops, which should attract the attention of agricultural management departments. Our findings provide useful information in predicting population dynamics and understanding the potential damage that could be incurred by S. frugiperda invasion.

In a scenario of climate change and growing population, halophyte root microbiota interactions may be a sustainable solution to improve alternative crop production while combating abiotic stress. In this work, seeds of the cash crop halophyte Salicornia ramosissima were inoculated with five different plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria consortia, isolated from the rhizosphere of five halophytes in southwestern Spain salt marshes. For the first time, we recorded seed germination response to three interactive abiotic stressors, CO2 (400 and 700 ppm), temperature (25 and 29 ℃) and salinity (171, 510 and 1030 mM NaCl), all of them related to climate change. Salinity played a decisive role, as no significant differences were registered between treatments at 171 mM NaCl and no germination took place at 1030 mM NaCl. At 510 mM NaCl, one rhizobacterial consortium improved seed parameters notably, increasing up to 114% germination percentage and 65% seedlings biomass. These first findings encourage us to think that cash crop halophytes like S. ramosissima and halophyte root microbiota may be valuable resources for human or animal feeding in a future climate reality.

Agriculture makes up approximately 41% of Ethiopia’s GDP and contributes to 85% of export earnings. Cash crops from this industry serve as the main export product, providing employment opportunities for numerous young people. Currently, the level of involvement of small-scale farmers in the sector and its production is minimal. This study sought to investigate factors that affect the participation of small-scale farmers in sesame production. A semi-structured survey, FGDs and KIIs were the main tools utilized for data collection. A multistage sampling methods was used to select appropriate respondents. The double-hurdle model and descriptive statistics were utilized in the analysis. Based on our studies, the probability of a small-scale farmer participating in sesame farming positively and significantly affected by the household head’s age, sex, and household size, as well as land and market accessibility; conversely, it decreases with the cost of better seeds, land allocated for different crops, and fertilizer prices. In addition, the truncated regression result indicates that the quantity of sesame grown by small-scale farmers positively and significantly affected by the household head ages, the sex of the household head, the size of the household, the size of the land, access to markets, access to credit, and access to extension services improve. Conversely, the allocation of land for other crops and the cost of improved seeds decrease the amount of sesame produced by small-scale farmers. Government organizations develop policies that enhance small-scale farmers’ access to markets, credit, and extension services. This leads to increased participation and production of sesame in the region.

Conversion of native forest to cash crops is the predominant form of land use change in the Jianghuai Hilly Region. However, how plantations with different cash crops affect the soil multi-functionality is not well documented. In this study, we collected three kinds of cash crops soils (vegetable, orchard, and tea) and forest soil, to systematically review the relationship between soil microbial communities and soil multi-functionality. Soil multi-functionality had decreased in vegetable and orchard as compared to native forest, whereas tea plantation had no significant effects on soil multi-functionality. The results also showed that cash crop plantations decreased soil multi-functionality by shifting keystone species’ abundance, for forest, vegetable, and orchard, the keystone species that were classified as module hubs in the bacterial co-occurrence network significantly negatively contributed to soil multi-functionality, but the keystone species categorized as module hubs in fungal co-occurrence network positively affected soil multi-functionality. Multiple soil properties were the drivers of the soil microbial community; thus, indicating that the altered soil properties under cash crop plantations were vital in determining microbial composition and biological processes. These results identified that sustainable management strategy in cash crop plantation needed to be developed for improving soil multi-functionality.

Non-grain agricultural land use (NGALU) could be an alternative to payments for ecosystem services (PES) to achieve ecosystem benefits, given their joint contribution to forest transition. Unraveling the correlation between PES and NGALU can enhance cost-effective decisions. While farmland abandonment and non-grain cash crops (NGCCs) plantation are two main manifestations of NGALU, previous studies have primarily assessed the effects of PES on farmland abandonment. Little is known about the effects of PES on NGCC planting. This study evaluated the effects of China’s two nationwide PES programs (i.e., the Grain to Green Program, GTGP, and the Ecological Welfare Forest Program, EWFP) on NGALU in the Black River Basin of Shaanxi province. The study found a wide adoption of NGALU, with 52% of households adopting NGALU. The total area of NGALU is more than half of the afforested area through the GTGP. A quarter of the NGALU area is abandoned farmland, while the remaining NGALU area is planted with NGCCs. The two PES programs did not have effects on NGCC planting, but reduced farmland abandonment. Engagement in labor migration and local non-farm employment increased NGALU, while livestock breeding and farmland area reduced NGALU. Furthermore, the large area and unfavorable geographical conditions of farmland parcels promoted NGALU. These results highlight the important implications of leveraging NGALU to boost ecological gains from conservation investments.

Regional weather variability depends on various meteorological variables such as temperature and rainfall. The current research focuses on the variability and trends in annual aerosol optical depth (AOD), temperature (T), and rainfall (RF) in 11 Vidarbha districts. The annual trend analysis of AOD, T, and R is determined using the non-parametric Sen slope and Mann–Kendall (MK) test at a 5% significant level from 1980 to 2019. Annual T and AOD indicate a substantial increase in this study, whereas rainfall shows a non-significant trend (MK, test) over the study period. According to Sen’s slope trends, the relatively high rainfall area (Chandrapur = 1.273 and Garchiroli = 4.06) got positive trends, but Gondia and Bhandara districts have negative (Sen’s slope =  − 2.79 and − 2.56) trends. The moderate rainfall areas are showing a less negative Sen slope (Wardha =  − 0.21, Washim =  − 1.13 and Yavatmal =  − 2.75), whereas Nagpur districts’ Sen’s slope shows a positive value (Sens’s slope = 0.72). The assured rainfall area districts show Sen’s slope trends are positive (Akola = 0.45, Amravati = 1.17 and Buldana = 0.42). Sen’s slope trend indicates rising rainfall, whereas negative trends indicate decreasing rainfall in the time series. This study has also looked at the effect of RF, AOD, and T on the last two decades’ cash crop production (2000–2019) for Vidarbha districts. The relationship between rainfall departure (DRF) and cash crop yield has also been highlighted. Five cash crops, such as cotton (Ct), total cereals (TCrl), total oilseeds (TOsd), total pulses (TPS), and sugarcane (Sc), are selected for the present study.