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The threat posed to protected areas by the illegal killing of wildlife is countered principally by ranger patrols that aim to detect and deter potential offenders. Deterring poaching is a fundamental conservation objective, but its achievement is difficult to identify, especially when the prime source of information comes in the form of the patrols’ own records, which inevitably contain biases. The most common metric of deterrence is a plot of illegal activities detected per unit of patrol effort (CPUE) against patrol effort (CPUE-E). We devised a simple, mechanistic model of law breaking and law enforcement in which we simulated deterrence alongside exogenous changes in the frequency of offences under different temporal patterns of enforcement effort. The CPUE-E plots were not reliable indicators of deterrence. However, plots of change in CPUE over change in effort (ΔCPUE-ΔE) reliably identified deterrence, regardless of the temporal distribution of effort or any exogenous change in illegal activity levels as long as the time lag between patrol effort and subsequent behavioral change among offenders was approximately known. The ΔCPUE-ΔE plots offered a robust, simple metric for monitoring patrol effectiveness; were no more conceptually complicated than the basic CPUE-E plots; and required no specialist knowledge or software to produce. Our findings demonstrate the need to account for temporal autocorrelation in patrol data and to consider appropriate (and poaching-activity-specific) intervals for aggregation. They also reveal important gaps in understanding of deterrence in this context, especially the mechanisms by which it occurs. In practical applications, we recommend the use of ΔCPUEΔ-E plots in preference to other basic metrics and advise that deterrence should be suspected only if there is a clear negative slope. Distinct types of illegal activity should not be grouped together for analysis, especially if the signs of their occurrence have different persistence times in the environment. La amenaza que representa la caza ilegal de fauna para las áreas protegidas está contrarrestada principalmente por las patrullas de guardias que buscan detectar y disuadir a los delincuentes potenciales. La disuasión de la caza furtiva es un objetivo fundamental de la conservación, pero es difícil identificar cuándo se logra, especialmente cuando la fuente principal de información proviene de los propios registros de las patrullas, que inevitablemente contiene sesgos. La medida más común de la disuasión es una parcela de actividades ilegales detectadas por unidad de esfuerzo de patrullaje (CPUE, en inglés) contra el esfuerzo de patrullaje (CPUE-E, en inglés). Diseñamos un modelo simple y mecánico del rompimiento y aplicación de la ley en el cual simulamos la disuasión junto con cambios exógenos en la frecuencia de ofensas bajo diferentes patrones temporales del esfuerzo de aplicación. Las parcelas de CPUE-E no fueron indicadores confiables de la disuasión. Sin embargo, las parcelas de cambio de CPUE sobre cambio en el esfuerzo (ΔCPUE-ΔE) identificaron con seguridad la disuasión sin importar la distribución temporal del esfuerzo o cualquier cambio exógeno en los niveles de actividad ilegal siempre y cuando el retraso en el tiempo entre el esfuerzo de patrullaje y el cambio en comportamiento subsecuente entre los delincuentes se conocía con cierta aproximación. Las parcelas de ΔCPUE-ΔE ofrecieron una medida simple y sólida para el monitoreo de la efectividad del patrullaje; no fueron más complicadas conceptualmente que las parcelas básicas de CPUE-E; y no requirieron de conocimiento de especialistas o algün software para producir. Nuestros hallazgos demuestran la necesidad de dar cuenta de la autocorrelación temporal en los datos de patrullaje y de considerar intervalos apropiados (y específicos a la actividad de caza furtiva) para su agregación. Nuestros hallazgos también revelan vacíos importantes en el entendimiento de la disuasión en este contexto, especialmente para los mecanismos mediante los cuales ocurre. En las aplicaciones prácticas recomendamos el uso de parcelas de ΔCPUE-ΔE por encima de otras medidas básicas y recomendamos que se sospeche de la disuasión sólo si existe una clara pendiente negativa. No se deben agrupar diferentes tipos de actividades ilegales para su análisis, especialmente si las sen~ales de su ocurrencia tienen diferentes momentos de persistencia en el ambiente. 野生动物的非法捕杀对保护地构成的威胁主要被以发现并阻止潜在罪犯为目标的巡逻队员的巡逻活动来 应对。_ 止偸猎是ー项基本的保护目标，担目标是否实现难以判断，特别是信息主要来自巡逻队自身记录的时 候这样就不可避免地存在偏差。判断巡逻威慑力最常见的标准是将每单位巡逻量发现的非法活动(CPUE)与 巡逻量进行作图(CPUE-E) o 我们设计了一个简单机械的违法与执法模型，模拟了在不同时间格局的执法工作 下威慑カ与外在因素导致的犯罪频率变化。结果显示，CPUJE-E图不能可靠地评估巡逻的威慑力。但是对CPUE 在巡逻量变化下的变化(ACPUE-AE)作图可以很好地确定威慑力，且不受巡逻时间分布或非法活动强度外因变 化的影响，只要能大致确定巡逻工作和随后罪犯行为变化的时间差即可。ACPUJE-AJE图提供了监测巡逻有效性 简单稳健的指标，它没有比基础的CPUE-E图更难以理解，也不需要其它专业知识或软件进行绘制。我们的发现 指出，需要考虑巡逻数据的时间自相关性，并选择适当的（及偷猎行为特定的）汇总时间间隔。結果还揭示了目 前对威慑力的认识存在不足，特別是它产生的机制。在实际应用中，我们建议优先使用ACPUE-AE凰且只有斜 率明显为负时才应怀疑威慑カ的作用。不同类型的非法活动不应该归为ー类进行分析，特别是当它们在环境中 留下的痕迹存在时间不一样长的时候。

Arctic marine mammals (AMMs) are icons of climate change, largely because of their close association with sea ice. However, neither a circumpolar assessment of AMM status nor a standardized metric of sea ice habitat change is available. We summarized available data on abundance and trend for each AMM species and recognized subpopulation. We also examined species diversity, the extent of human use, and temporal trends in sea ice habitat for 12 regions of the Arctic by calculating the dates of spring sea ice retreat and fall sea ice advance from satellite data (1979–2013). Estimates of AMM abundance varied greatly in quality, and few studies were long enough for trend analysis. Of the AMM subpopulations, 78% (61 of 78) are legally harvested for subsistence purposes. Changes in sea ice phenology have been profound. In all regions except the Bering Sea, the duration of the summer (i.e., reduced ice) period increased by 5–10 weeks and by >20 weeks in the Barents Sea between 1979 and 2013. In light of generally poor data, the importance of human use, and forecasted environmental changes in the 21st century, we recommend the following for effective AMM conservation: maintain and improve comanagement by local, federal, and international partners; recognize spatial and temporal variability in AMM subpopulation response to climate change; implement monitoring programs with clear goals; mitigate cumulative impacts of increased human activity; and recognize the limits of current protected species legislation.

Conservation organizations have increasingly raised concerns about escalating rates of illegal hunting and trade in wildlife. Previous studies have concluded that people hunt illegally because they are financially poor or lack alternative livelihood strategies. However, there has been little attempt to develop a richer understanding of the motivations behind contemporary illegal wildlife hunting. As a first step, we reviewed the academic and policy literatures on poaching and illegal wildlife use and considered the meanings of poverty and the relative importance of structure and individual agency. We placed motivations for illegal wildlife hunting within the context of the complex history of how wildlife laws were initially designed and enforced to indicate how hunting practices by specific communities were criminalized. We also considered the nature of poverty and the reasons for economic deprivation in particular communities to indicate how particular understandings of poverty as material deprivation ultimately shape approaches to illegal wildlife hunting. We found there is a need for a much better understanding of what poverty is and what motivates people to hunt illegally.

Tourism and hunting both generate substantial revenues for communities and private operators in Africa, but few studies have quantitatively examined the trade-offs and synergies that may result from these two activities. We evaluated financial and in-kind benefit streams from tourism and hunting on 77 communal conservancies in Namibia from 1998 to 2013, where community-based wildlife conservation has been promoted as a land-use that complements traditional subsistence agriculture. We used data collected annually for all communal conservancies to characterize whether benefits were derived from hunting or tourism. We classified these benefits into 3 broad classes and examined how benefits flowed to stakeholders within communities under the status quo and under a simulated ban on hunting. Across all conservancies, total benefits from hunting and tourism increased at roughly the same rate, although conservancies typically started generating benefits from hunting within 3 years of formation as opposed to after 6 years for tourism. Disaggregation of data revealed that the main benefits from hunting were income for conservancy management and food in the form of meat for the community at large. The majority of tourism benefits were salaried jobs at lodges. A simulated ban on trophy hunting significantly reduced the number of conservancies that could cover their operating costs, whereas eliminating income from tourism did not have as severe an effect. Given that the benefits generated from hunting and tourism typically begin at different times in a conservancy's life-span (earlier vs. later, respectively) and flow to different segments of local communities, these 2 activities together may provide the greatest incentives for conservation on communal lands in Namibia. A singular focus on either hunting or tourism would reduce the value of wildlife as a competitive land-use option and have grave repercussions for the viability of community-based conservation efforts in Namibia, and possibly other parts of Africa. El turismo y la caza generan ingresos públicos sustanciales para las comunidades y los operadores privados en África, pero pocos estudios han examinado cuantitativamente las compensaciones y las sinergias que pueden resultar de estas dos actividades. Evaluamos las oleadas de beneficios financieros y de pago en especie provenientes del turismo y la caza en 77 zonas de conservación comunal en Namibia desde 1998 a 2013, donde la conservación de vida silvestre basada en la comunidad ha sido promovida como un uso de suelo que complementa la agricultura tradicional de subsistencia. Usamos datos colectados anualmente de todas las zonas comunales para caracterizar si los beneficios se derivaron de la caza o el turismo. Clasificamos estos beneficios en tres categorías generales y examinamos cómo los beneficios fluyeron hacia los accionistas dentro de las comunidades bajo el status quo y bajo una prohibición simulada de la caza. En todas las zonas de conservación comunal, los beneficios totales de la caza y el turismo incrementaron aproximadamente a la misma tasa, aunque en estas zonas se comenzaron a generar beneficios de la caza normalmente dentro de los 3 años de formación, en contraste con del turismo que se generaron después de 6 años. La desagregación de los datos reveló que los principales beneficios de la caza fueron los ingresos para el manejo de la conservación y la comida en forma de carne para la mayoría de la comunidad. La mayoría de los beneficios del turismo fueron trabajos a sueldo en hospedajes. Una prohibición simulada sobre la caza de trofeos redujo significativamente el número de zonas de conservación que podrían cubrir sus gastos de operación, mientras que la eliminación del ingreso por el turismo no tuvo un efecto severo. Dado que los beneficios generados por la caza y el turismo comienzan comúnmente a tiempos distintos en la duración total de la conservación (más temprano que más tarde, respectivamente) y fluyen a segmentos diferentes de las comunidades locales, estas dos actividades juntas pueden proporcionar incentivos más grandes para la conservación en las tierras comunales de Namibia. Un foco único sobre la caza o el turismo puede reducir el valor de la vida silvestre como opción de uso de suelo competitivo y tener repercusiones graves sobre la viabilidad de los esfuerzos de conservación basada en comunidades de Namibia, y posiblemente de otras partes de África.

Selective harvesting regimes are often implemented because age and sex classes contribute differently to population dynamics and hunters show preferences associated with body size and trophy value. We reviewed the literature on how such cropping regimes affect the demography of the remaining population (here termed demographic side effects ). First, we examined the implications of removing a large proportion of a specific age or sex class. Such harvesting strategies often bias the population sex ratio toward females and reduce the mean age of males, which may consequently delay birth dates, reduce birth synchrony, delay body mass development, and alter offspring sex ratios. Second, we reviewed the side effects associated with the selective removal of relatively few specific individuals, often large trophy males. Such selective harvesting can destabilize social structures and the dominance hierarchy and may cause loss of social knowledge, sexually selected infanticide, habitat changes among reproductive females, and changes in offspring sex ratio. A common feature of many of the reported mechanisms is that they ultimately depress recruitment and in some extreme cases even cause total reproductive collapse. These effects could act additively and destabilize the dynamics of populations, thus having a stronger effect on population growth rate than first anticipated. Although more experimental than observational studies reported demographic side effects, we argue that this may reflect the quite subtle mechanisms involved, which are unlikely to be detected in observational studies without rigorous monitoring regimes. We call for more detailed studies of hunted populations with marked individuals that address how the expression of these effects varies across mating systems, habitats, and with population density. Theoretical models investigating how strongly these effects influence population growth rates are also required.

Wildlife hunting is essential to livelihoods and food security in many parts of the world, yet present rates of extraction may threaten ecosystems and human communities. Thus, governing sustainable wildlife use is a major social dilemma and conservation challenge. Commons scholarship is well positioned to contribute theoretical insights and analytic tools to better understand the interface of social and ecological dimensions of wildlife governance, yet the intersection of wildlife studies and commons scholarship is not well studied. We reviewed existing wildlife-hunting scholarship, drawing on a database of 1,410 references, to examine the current overlap with commons scholarship through multiple methods, including social network analysis and deductive coding. We found that a very small proportion of wildlife scholarship incorporated commons theories and frameworks. The social network of wildlife scholarship was densely interconnected with several major publication clusters, whereas the wildlife commons scholarship was sparse and isolated. Despite the overarching gap between wildlife and commons scholarship, a few scholars are studying wildlife commons. The small body of scholarship that bridges these disconnected literatures provides valuable insights into the understudied relational dimensions of wildlife and other overlapping common-pool resources. We suggest increased engagement among wildlife and commons scholars and practitioners to improve the state of knowledge and practice of wildlife governance across regions, particularly for bushmeat hunting in the tropics, which is presently understudied through a common-pool resource lens. Our case study of the Republic of Congo showed how the historical context and interrelationships between hunting and forest rights are essential to understanding the current state of wildlife governance and potential for future interventions. A better understanding of the interconnections between wildlife and overlapping common-pool resource systems may be key to understanding present wildlife governance challenges and advancing the common-pool resource research agenda. La caza de fauna es esencial para el sustento y la seguridad alimentaria en muchas partes del mundo pero presenta tasas de extracción que podrían amenazar a los ecosistemas y a las comunidades humanas. Por esto, gobernar el uso sustentable de la fauna es un dilema social importante y un reto para la conservación. El conocimiento sobre los bienes comunes está bien posicionado para contribuir con ideas teóricas y herramientas analíticas para un mejor entendimiento de la interfaz entre las dimensiones sociales yecológicas de la gobernanza de fauna, aunque la intersección de los estudios sobre fauna y el conocimiento sobre los bienes comunes no esté bien estudiada. Revisamos el conocimiento existente sobre la caza de fauna a partir de una base de datos de 1, 410 referencias para examinar el traslape actual con el conocimiento sobre los de bienes comunes por medio de múltiples métodos, incluyendo el análisis de redes sociales y la codificación deductiva. Encontramos que una proporción muy pequeña de estudios de fauna incorporaban marcos de trabajo y teorías de bienes comunes. La red social de conocimiento sobre la fauna tenía una interconexión muy densa con varios grupos de publicaciones importantes, mientras que la del conocimiento de bienes de fauna era escasa y estaba aislada. A pesar del enorme vacío entre el conocimiento de bienes y la fauna, algunos están estudiando los bienes de fauna. El pequeño cuerpo de becas que construye un puente entre estas literaturas desconectadas proporciona ideas valiosas sobre la dimensión de las relaciones poco estudiadas de la fauna y otros recursos comunes que se traslapan. Sugerimos una participación mayor entre el conocimiento de fauna y bienes comunes y los practicantes para mejorar el estado de conocimiento y de las prácticas de la gobernanza de fauna a lo largo de todas las regiones, particularmente para la caza de fauna en los trópicos, la cual actualmente está poco estudiada dentro de la visión de los recursos comunes. Nuestro estudio de caso sobre la República del Congo mostró cómo el contexto histórico y las interrelaciones entre la caza y los derechos de bosque son esenciales para el entendimiento del estado actual de la gobernanza de fauna y el potencial para las futuras intervenciones. Un mejor entendimiento de las interconexiones entre la fauna y los sistemas de recursos comunes que se traslapan puede ser una clave para entender los retos actuales de la gobernanza de fauna y el avance de la agenda de investigación sobre los recursos comunes. 在世界上很多地方，野生动物狩猎对人们的生计和食物保障至关重要，但目前狩猎的速率可能威胁到生 态系统和人类社会。因此，野生动物资源可持续利用的管理是重要的社会困境和保护挑故。公共资源的学术研 究有助于提供深人的理论认识和分析工具，来更好地理解野生动物管理中社会和生态维度的交界，然而，野生动 物研究和公共资源研究的交叉点还没有得到深入探索。我们借助于ー个含有 篇参考文献的数据库，回顾 了现有野生动物狩猎的知识，并通过包括社会网络分析和演绎编码在内的多种方法分析其与公共资源研究的重 叠。我们发现，只有很少一部分的野生动物研究纳入了公共资源的理论和框架。野生动物研究的社会网络与几 个主流出版物集群紧密相连，而野生动物公共资源研究则稀少且孤立。尽管野生动物与公共资源的研究之间存 在巨大差距，但仍有ー些学者在研究野生动物公共资源。这ー小部分学术研究将ー些关系不紧密的文献联系起 来为理解野生动物和其它重叠的公共资源的关系提供了宝贵的见解。我们建议加强野生动物和公共资源学者 和管理实践者之间的交流，来提高各地区野生动物管理的知识和实践水平，特别是目前从公共资源角度研究较少 的热带地区丛林肉狩猎问題。我们对刚果共和国的案例研究表明了狩猎和林权之间的历史背景和相互关系在了 解目前野生动物管理状态和未来干预措施的潜力中起到重要作用。更好地理解野生动物和重叠的公地资源系統 的相互关系可能是理解野生动物管理目前面临的挑战和推进公地资源研究议程的关键 胡怡键。

The escalating illegal wildlife trade (IWT) is one of the most high-profile conservation challenges today. The crisis has attracted over US$350 million in donor and government funding in recent years, primarily directed at increased enforcement. There is growing recognition among practitioners and policy makers of the need to engage rural communities that neighbor or live with wildlife as key partners in tackling IWT. However, a framework to guide such community engagement is lacking. We developed a theory of change (ToC) to guide policy makers, donors, and practitioners in partnering with communities to combat IWT. We identified 4 pathways for community-level actions: strengthen disincentives for illegal behavior, increase incentives for wildlife stewardship, decrease costs of living with wildlife, and support livelihoods that are not related to wildlife. To succeed the pathways, all require strengthening of enabling conditions, including capacity building, and of governance. Our ToC serves to guide actions to tackle IWT and to inform the evaluation of policies. Moreover, it can be used to foster dialogue among IWT stakeholders, from local communities to governments and international donors, to develop a more effective, holistic, and sustainable community-based response to the IWT crisis. El creciente mercado ilegal de vida silvestre (MIVS) es uno de los obstáculos de más alto perfil para la conservación hoy en día. La crisis ha atraído más de US$350 millones en financiamiento por donadores y por el gobierno en los años recientes, principalmente dirigido a un aumento en la aplicación de la ley. Existe un reconocimiento creciente por parte de los practicantes y quienes hacen las políticas de la necesidad de hacer partícipes a las comunidades rurales que colindan o viven con la vida silvestre como compañeros clave para aplacar el MIVS. Sin embargo, se carece de un marco de trabajo para guiar dicha participación comunitaria. Desarrollamos una teoría de cambio (TdC) para guiar a quienes hacen las políticas, los donadores y los practicantes en el asociamiento con las comunidades para combatir el MIVS. Identificamos cuatro vías para las acciones a nivel comunitario: fortalecer los impedimentos para el comportamiento ilegal, incrementar los incentivos para la adopción de la vida silvestre, disminuir los costos de vivir con la vida silvestre y apoyar los sustentos que no están relacionados con la vida silvestre. Para tener éxito, todas las vías requieren fortalecer la activación de las condiciones, incluyendo la capacidad de construcción y de gobemanza. Nuestra TdC sirve para guiar las acciones que impidan el MIVS y para informar a la evaluación de las políticas. Además, puede utilizarse para fomentar el diálogo entre los accionistas del MIVS, desde las comunidades locales hasta los gobiernos y los donadores internacionales, para desarrollar una respuesta basada en la comunidad más efectiva, holística y sustentable a la crisis del MIVS.

Wildlife consumption can be viewed as an ecosystem provisioning service (the production of a material good through ecological functioning) because of wildlife's ability to persist under sustainable levels of harvest. We used the case of wildlife harvest and consumption in northeastern Madagascar to identify the distribution of these services to local households and communities to further our understanding of local reliance on natural resources. We inferred these benefits from demand curves built with data on wildlife sales transactions. On average, the value of wildlife provisioning represented 57% of annual household cash income in local communities from the Makira Natural Park and Masoala National Park, and harvested areas produced an economic return of U.S.$0.42 ha⁻¹· year⁻¹. Variability in value of harvested wildlife was high among communities and households with an approximate 2 orders of magnitude difference in the proportional value of wildlife to household income. The imputed price of harvested wildlife and its consumption were strongly associated (p< 0.001), and increases in price led to reduced harvest for consumption. Heightened monitoring and enforcement of hunting could increase the costs of harvesting and thus elevate the price and reduce consumption of wildlife. Increased enforcement would therefore be beneficial to biodiversity conservation but could limit local people's food supply. Specifically, our results provide an estimate of the cost of offsetting economic losses to local populations from the enforcement of conservation policies. By explicitly estimating the welfare effects of consumed wildlife, our results may inform targeted interventions by public health and development specialists as they allocate sparse funds to support regions, households, or individuals most vulnerable to changes in access to wildlife. Valoración Económica de la Caza de Subsistencia de Vida Silvestre en Madagascar

There is global concern about tropical forest degradation, in part, because of the associated loss of biodiversity. Communities and indigenous people play a fundamental role in tropical forest management and are often efficient at preventing forest degradation. However, monitoring changes in biodiversity due to degradation, especially at a scale appropriate to local tropical forest management, is plagued by difficulties, including the need for expert training, inconsistencies across observers, and lack of baseline or reference data. We used a new biodiversity remote-sensing technology, the recording of soundscapes, to test whether the acoustic saturation of a tropical forest in Papua New Guinea decreases as land-use intensity by the communities that manage the forest increases. We sampled soundscapes continuously for 24 hours at 34 sites in different land-use zones of 3 communities. Land-use zones where forest cover was fully retained had significantly higher soundscape saturation during peak acoustic activity times (i.e., dawn and dusk chorus) compared with land-use types with fragmented forest cover. We conclude that, in Papua New Guinea, the relatively simple measure of soundscape saturation may provide a cheap, objective, reproducible, and effective tool for monitoring tropical forest deviation from an intact state, particularly if it is used to detect the presence of intact dawn and dusk choruses. Existe una preocupación global por la degradación del bosque tropical, en parte, por la pérdida asociada de la biodiversidad. Las comunidades y personas indígenas juegan un papel fundamental en el manejo del bosque tropical y son continuamente eficientes en la prevención de la degradación del bosque. Sin embargo, el monitoreo de cambios en la biodiversidad por causa de la degradación, especialmente a una escala apropiada para el manejo del bosque tropical local, está plagado de dificultades, incluyendo la necesidad de entrenamiento por expertos, inconsistencias entre los observadores, y la falta de una línea base de datos de referencia. Utilizamos una tecnología nueva de detección remota de la biodiversidad, la grabación del paisaje sonoro, para probar si la saturación acústica de un bosque tropical en Papua Nueva Guinea disminuye conforme incrementa la intensidad del uso de suelo por las comunidades que manejan el bosque. Muestreamos el paisaje sonoro continuamente durante 24 horas en 34 sitios en diferentes zonas de uso de suelo de tres comunidades. Las zonas de uso de suelo en donde la cobertura forestal se retuvo completamente tuvieron una saturación de paisaje sonoro significativamente más alta durante los momentos cumbre de actividad acústica (es decir, el coro al amanecer y al atardecer) en comparación con los tipos de uso de suelo con cobertura forestal fragmentada. Concluimos que, en Papua Nueva Guinea, la medida relativamente simple de la saturación del paisaje sonoro puede proporcionar una herramienta barata, objetiva, reproducible y efectiva para el monitoreo de la desviación del bosque tropical a partir de un estado intacto, particularmente si se utiliza para detectar la presencia de coros intactos al amanecer y al atardecer.

Building from scholarship charting the complex, often ambivalent, relationship between military activity and the environment, and the more recent critical geographical work on militarization, this article sheds light on a particular meshing of militarization and conservation: green militarization. An intensifying yet surprisingly understudied trend around the world, this is the use of military and paramilitary personnel, training, technologies, and partnerships in the pursuit of conservation efforts. I introduce this concept, first, as a call for more sustained scholarly investigation into the militarization of conservation practice. More modestly, the article offers its own contribution to this end by turning to South Africa's Kruger National Park, the world's most concentrated site of commercial rhino poaching. Focusing on the state's multilayered and increasingly lethal militarized response to what is itself a highly militarized practice, I illustrate how the spatial qualities of protected areas matter immensely for the convergence of conservation and militarization and the concrete forms this convergence takes. For Kruger, these include its status as a national park framed by a semiporous international border and its expansive, often dense terrain. Steering clear of spatial determinism, I equally show how spatial contours authorize militarization only once they articulate with particular assumptions and values; for Kruger these amount to political-ecological values regarding the nation-state, its sovereignty, and its natural heritage. The result is an intensifying interlocking of conservation and militarization that frequently produces unforeseen consequences.