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Exogenous hormones are crucial for regulating reproductive output at various developmental stages in plants, including the medicinal species Pseudostellaria heterophylla , which has a chasmogamous (CH)–cleistogamous (CL) mixed mating system. This study examined the influence of phytohormones on reproductive output at different growth stages and aimed to identify strategies for optimizing genetic breeding. Phytohormones such as gibberellic acid, abscisic acid, indole-3-acetic acid, and zeatin were applied at concentrations of 0, 10, 50, 100, and 200 mg/L during the sprouting and pre-flowering stages of CH and CL flowers. Results indicated that 10 mg/L ABA during the pre-flowering stage increased CH flower numbers by about 30%, while 200 mg/L ABA reduced CH flower production by over 40%. Spraying 200 mg/L GA3 at the sprouting stage resulted in a 150% increase in CL flowers. Other hormones had negligible effects on CL flowers, with only a 9.4% reduction when 100 mg/L ZT was applied. Additionally, 200 mg/L GA3 during the pre-flowering stage significantly increased root weight by 55.6%. In conclusion, applying exogenous hormones at specific stages can effectively regulate flower numbers and root weight, aiding genetic breeding efforts.

Based on a comprehensive analysis of type materials, protologues, herbarium specimens, and field observations, this study clarifies the taxonomic status of and related species in China. Our findings reveal that shares key similarities with , including leaf shape, inflorescence type, and calyx structure, and therefore we have placed S.dawoensis as a synonym of S.batangensis. Additionally, specimens historically misidentified as are reassigned to , a species previously overlooked in regional floras. Concurrently, based on diagnostic differences in leaf shape, calyx length, and petal morphology, we reinstate as a distinct species, previously treated as a synonym of . Typification for and is given. Descriptions, distribution maps, taxonomic notes, and morphological comparison table are provided for these three species.

The Kaua'i species H. St. John was previously characterized by a geographical range including a number of Napali Coast valleys and the Limahuli, Wainiha, and Manoa valleys in the northern part of the island whereas the closely related W. L. Wagner & Weller occurs in the Anahola area and on Ha'upu on the windward (eastern) side of Kaua'i. The primary characteristic distinguishing them is a subshrub habit for vs a vining habit in . In several localities from northern Kaua'i including Limahuli, Wainiha, and Manoa valleys, populations were known only from herbarium specimens but were included within in part because these localities were closest to the Napali Coast valleys, which encompasses the remainder of the range of the species. Recent field work resulting in discovery of new populations and cultivation of plants from Limahuli and Manoa has shown that plants from these three northern localities do not represent but rather fit with . Two of the collections from this northern area are the types of H. St. John and . Since these names were published earlier, we must adopt here the earliest name, , for the plants formerly known as leaving the species from the Napali Coast valleys without a name and described here as a new species, W. L. Wagner & Weller.

Background The family Caryophyllaceae has traditionally been divided into three subfamilies (i.e. Alsinoideae, Caryophylloideae, Paronychioideae). However, the monophyly of each subfamily has been challenged, while boundaries, phylogenetic relationships, and divergence times of particular tribes and genera still remain to be inferred. Results Our plastome-derived phylogenies strongly support the monophyly of Caryophyllaceae with a dated crown age of ca. 56.4 Mya (Late Paleocene). While the three traditional subfamilies proved non-monophyletic, relationships among 11 previously recognized tribes were fully resolved. However, in contrast to earlier studies, we identified tribe Eremogoneae (represented by Eremogone griffithii ) as sister to tribe Sileneae, and the monotypic genus Thylacospermum ( T. caespitosum ) as a member of Caryophylleae. BBM inferred that the ancestral states of Caryophyllaceae include: presence of stipules; free sepals; absence of petals; five stamens; and utricle or achene fruit. Conclusions This is the first comprehensive phylogenomic analysis of Caryophyllaceae that strongly supports the subdivision of the family into 11 tribes. While the initial divergence of this family (ca. 56.4 Mya) may be associated with the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM; ca. 55.5 Mya), tribes only started to diversify either during the Late Eocene (ca. 35.1–31.6 Mya) or, in particular, during the Late Oligocene to Mid-Miocene (25.5–15.5 Mya). This temporal coincidence suggests that the origin and diversification of many, if not the majority of Caryophyllaceae genera may have been shaped by global cooling and/or aridification events since the Mid-to-Late Miocene as well as the Pliocene–Pleistocene.

Background Gypsophila Radix (Chinese: ShanYin ChaiHu ) is a traditional Chinese medicine derived from the dried roots of three Caryophyllaceae species: Silene jenisseensis , Arenaria juncea , and Gypsophila licentiana . Clinically, it is used as an adjuvant therapy for hepatic fibrosis in chronic hepatitis B. However, no reports have yet described the chloroplast genomes of these species. This study aimed to sequence and characterize the chloroplast genomes of these three species and to explore their phylogenetic relationships within Caryophyllaceae . Methods The complete chloroplast genomes of S. jenisseensis , A. juncea , and G. licentiana were sequenced and annotated. Comparative genomic analyses were performed among these species and with representative members of the same family to identify genomic variation, simple sequence repeats (SSRs), and repetitive sequences. Results The chloroplast genome of S. jenisseensis , G. licentiana and A. juncea were 161,759 bp, 152,676 bp, and 134,812 bp in length, respectively, showing considerable size variation. A. juncea contained 46 SSRs and 16 repetitive sequences; G. licentiana contained 83 SSRs and 47 repetitive sequences; while, S. jenisseensis had the highest numbers, with 125 SSRs and 50 repetitive sequences, Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these three newly sequenced chloroplast genomes formed well supported subgroups within their respective genera: Silene , Gypsophila , and Arenaria , confirming the monophyly of these genera. Conclusions The comparative analysis of repetitive sequence and SSRs provide valuable insights for developing chloroplast genome-based markers. This study enriches the chloroplast genomic resources of Caryophyllaceae and lays a foundation for species identification, evolution studies and the genetic resource utilization of Caryophyllaceae .

Many phylogenomic studies based on transcriptomes have been limited to “single-copy” genes due to methodological challenges in homology and orthology inferences. Only a relatively small number of studies have explored analyses beyond reconstructing species relationships. We sampled 69 transcriptomes in the hyperdiverse plant clade Caryophyllales and 27 outgroups from annotated genomes across eudicots. Using a combined similarity- and phylogenetic tree-based approach, we recovered 10,960 homolog groups, where each was represented by at least eight ingroup taxa. By decomposing these homolog trees, and taking gene duplications into account, we obtained 17,273 ortholog groups, where each was represented by at least ten ingroup taxa. We reconstructed the species phylogeny using a 1,122-gene data set with a gene occupancy of 92.1%. From the homolog trees, we found that both synonymous and nonsynonymous substitution rates in herbaceous lineages are up to three times as fast as in their woody relatives. This is the first time such a pattern has been shown across thousands of nuclear genes with dense taxon sampling. We also pinpointed regions of the Caryophyllales tree that were characterized by relatively high frequencies of gene duplication, including three previously unrecognized whole-genome duplications. By further combining information from homolog tree topology and synonymous distance between paralog pairs, phylogenetic locations for 13 putative genome duplication events were identified. Genes that experienced the greatest gene family expansion were concentrated among those involved in signal transduction and oxidoreduction, including a cytochrome P450 gene that encodes a key enzyme in the betalain synthesis pathway. Our approach demonstrates a new approach for functional phylogenomic analysis in nonmodel species that is based on homolog groups in addition to inferred ortholog groups.

Pseudostellaria heterophylla, a dual-purpose medicinal and edible herb, has shown significant pharmacological potential, particularly through its immunomodulatory and antitumor activities. This review provides insights into the phytohormone regulatory mechanisms and active-component biosynthesis, highlighting key metabolic pathways and yield-optimization strategies. The interactions between hormones and genes in root morphology and metabolite accumulation are discussed, offering new perspectives for molecular breeding. Additionally, a multidisciplinary framework is proposed to address cultivation challenges and quality enhancement, laying the groundwork for sustainable utilization of this valuable medicinal plant.

Purpose The physical seed priming methods are becoming promising due to their lower application costs and greater safety compared with the chemical methods. Although many benefits of microwaves as a physical treatment have been proven for humans and animals, there are not enough studies to highlight their importance for plants, especially under stressful conditions such as salinity. Therefore, possibility of using microwaves to enhance salt tolerance of Gypsophila paniculata plants was investigated. Methods Seeds of G. paniculata were exposed to microwaves for three exposure times (5, 10 and 15 s), in addition to the control treatment (without microwave treatment). Seeds were then sown in pots and the produced plants irrigated with saline water at salinity concentrations of 0, 1000, 2000 and 4000 mg L − 1 . Growth parameters, flowering behavior, plant pigments, nutrients content and oxidative stress indices were estimated. Results Raising concentration of salts in the irrigation water resulted in considerable declines in G. paniculata vegetative growth and flowering traits, leaf nutritional status, plant pigments, and carbohydrates percentage while proline, catalase activity and malondialdehyde increased. Plants produced from microwaved seeds for 15 s exhibited the maximum increases of vegetative growth and flowering traits, leaf nutrients content, plant pigments, carbohydrates percentage, proline, and catalase activity with significant reduction in malondialdehyde. Under different salinity levels, microwaving seeds for 15 s was the efficient treatment for improving growth, flower quality, nutrients homeostasis, biochemical constituents and oxidative stress indices G. paniculata plants. Conclusion The sensitivity of G. paniculata to salinity was reduced by applying microwave technology, as the physiological balance was regulated, thus improving the growth and flowering features. Microwave influences may contribute in the metabolism and biosynthesis of osmolytes and antioxidant defensive modes under salt stressful. Accordingly, sowing the microwaved seeds for 15-second as a novel seed priming could be practiced to enhance salt tolerance of G. paniculata crop grown in arid regions.

Background Caryophyllaceae contains 100 genera and 3000 species, many of which are valuable both ecologically and economically. However, as past research has shown, the fundamental phylogenetic relationships of Caryophyllaceae are still debatable, and molecular dating based on chloroplast genomes has not been thoroughly examined for the entire family. Methods In this study, the complete chloroplast genome sequences of Arenaria kansuensis Maxim., A. roborowskii Maxim., A. przewalskii Maxim., and Silene aprica Turcz were described. Additionally, the four newly generated along with eighteen published chloroplast genomes of Caryophyllaceae were included for comparative genomics analysis. Results These 22 chloroplast genomes had typical quadripartite structure, with 128–134 distinct genes and lengths ranging from 133,621 bp to 153,957 bp. The 22 Caryophyllaceae chloroplast genomes showed significant variations in the number of long repeats and SSR types; mononucleotide repeats (A/T) and palindromic repeats were the most common types. Three substantially divergent areas containing atpB - rbcL , rbcL - accD , and accD were found by further comparative study, which could serve as effective molecular markers. The codon bias of chloroplast genomes in Caryophyllaceae were mainly affected by natural selection, but other factors such as mutation pressure could also affect the codon bias to some extent. Fourteen optimal codons were identified in the chloroplast genome of Caryophyllaceae. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that the monophyly of any of the three recognized subfamilies within Caryophyllaceae was not supported by our data. Meanwhile, seven well-supported clades correspond to 8 tribes were found in phylogenetic trees. The results of molecular dating demonstrated that the divergence between Caryophyllaceae and Amaranthaceae was estimated to occur in 69 Ma. The Paronychieae was the oldest tribe of the eight tribes included in this study, diverged at 59.92 Ma. Conclusion This study provides resources for further investigations on the identification, genetic engineering, evolution, and phylogeny of Caryophyllaceae species.

In this study, quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR) was used to determine the amount of Fusarium oxysporum , an important replant disease pathogen in Pseudostellaria heterophylla rhizospheric soil. Moreover, HPLC was used to identify phenolic acids in root exudates then it was further to explore the effects of the phenolic acid allelochemicals on the growth of F. oxysporum f.sp. heterophylla . The amount of F. oxysporum increased significantly in P. heterophylla rhizosphere soil under a consecutive replant system as monitored through qPCR analysis. Furthermore, the growth of F. oxysporum f.sp. heterophylla mycelium was enhanced by root exudates with a maximum increase of 23.8%. In addition, the number of spores increased to a maximum of 12.5-fold. Some phenolic acids promoted the growth of F. oxysporum f.sp. heterophylla mycelium and spore production. Our study revealed that phenolic acids in the root secretion of P. heterophylla increased long with its development, which was closely related to changes in rhizospheric microorganisms. The population of pathogenic microorganisms such as F. oxysporum in the rhizosphere soil of P. heterophylla also sharply increased. Our results on plant-microbe communication will help to better clarify the cause of problems associated with P. heterophylla under consecutive monoculture treatment.