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The distribution of diversity can vary considerably from clade to clade. Attempts to understand these patterns often employ state-dependent speciation and extinction models to determine whether the evolution of a particular novel trait has increased speciation rates and/or decreased extinction rates. It is still unclear, however, whether these models are uncovering important drivers of diversification, or whether they are simply pointing to more complex patterns involving many unmeasured and co-distributed factors. Here we describe an extension to the popular state-dependent speciation and extinction models that specifically accounts for the presence of unmeasured factors that could impact diversification rates estimated for the states of any observed trait, addressing at least one major criticism of BiSSE (Binary State Speciation and Extinction) methods. Specifically, our model, which we refer to as HiSSE (Hidden State Speciation and Extinction), assumes that related to each observed state in the model are \"hidden\" states that exhibit potentially distinct diversification dynamics and transition rates than the observed states in isolation. We also demonstrate how our model can be used as characterindependent diversification models that allow for a complex diversification process that is independent of the evolution of a character. Under rigorous simulation tests and when applied to empirical data, we find that HiSSE performs reasonably well, and can at least detect net diversification rate differences between observed and hidden states and detect when diversification rate differences do not correlate with the observed states. We discuss the remaining issues with state-dependent speciation and extinction models in general, and the important ways in which HiSSE provides a more nuanced understanding of trait-dependent diversification.

In this assessment we incorporated published and unpublished information to delineate and score Biologically Important Areas (BIAs) for cetaceans in the Hawaiʻi region following standardized criteria. Twenty-six cetacean species have been documented in Hawaiʻi. Eleven odontocete species have distinct small populations resident to one or more island areas: rough-toothed dolphins, pantropical spotted dolphins, common bottlenose dolphins, spinner dolphins, short-finned pilot whales, false killer whales, pygmy killer whales, melon-headed whales, Blainville’s beaked whales, Cuvier’s beaked whales, and dwarf sperm whales. Eight species of mysticetes have been documented, although their occurrence and behavior are poorly understood, with the exception of breeding humpback whales and, more recently, common minke whales. Thirty-five BIAs were delineated or revised from the initial 2015 effort: 33 for small and resident odontocete populations and two for humpback whale reproductive areas. Hierarchical BIAs reflecting core areas of use or population-specific ranges were delineated for nine species. Reproductive watch list areas were designated for common minke whales in the main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) and humpback whales in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI); these areas did not meet the criteria for a BIA due to limited supporting information. All but three BIAs were in the MHI, reflecting the disparities in research effort between this region and the NWHI. Spatial extents of BIA boundaries ranged from 457 km 2 to 138,001 km 2 (median = 8,299 km 2 ). Scores (range: 1-3) for Data Support and Boundary Certainty were moderate to high (mean = 2.40 and 2.43, respectively), while Intensity and Importance scores were slightly lower (mean = 1.94 and 1.89, respectively). Many of the Hawaiʻi species have been extensively studied over several decades; accordingly, this region ranks among the highest in terms of Data Support relative to other regions. BIAs presented here describe known ranges of small resident populations, intensities of use, and uncertainties in important areas for cetaceans in Hawaiʻi based on the best available data, and have also revealed knowledge gaps to guide future research efforts.

Twenty-five species of cetaceans have been reported throughout the Mediterranean Sea, eight of them are commonly distributed in the whole basin and are regularly found beached or adrift in the sea. Stranded animals are frequently found in poor conservation status, preventing reliable identification; identification is thus often based solely on morphological features. Therewith, molecular tools are especially useful to provide taxonomic identification. In this work, a four-enzymes PCR-RFLP in silico protocol, based on a fragment of the mitochondrial gene cytb, has been designed for cetacean species occurring in the Mediterranean Sea. Moreover, beached or floating specimen samples belonging to the eight common species have been tested in the laboratory, providing evidence that this approach represents a reliable, cost- and time-effective tool for their specific identification.

The Guiana dolphin (Sotalia guianensis) is a cetacean found in tropical coastal waters of the Western Atlantic, distributed from Honduras to northern Santa Catarina, Brazil. Its restricted distribution and interaction with human activities, such as artisanal fishing and pollution, make it highly vulnerable to anthropogenic threats, being classified as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and vulnerable by the Brazilian Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation (ICMBio), the Brazilian Ministry of the Environment's administrative arm. Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK) is essential to understand interactions between fishing communities and this species. In this sense, this study aimed to identify the interactions between artisanal fishers and Guiana dolphins on the coast of Maranhão, aiming to provide relevant information on Guiana dolphins, essential to support conservation efforts for the species. A total of 88 semi-structured questionnaires were applied to fishers from the Tubarão Bay Extractive Reserve and São Marcos Bay, in Maranhão, northern Brazil. The calculated Smith's Salience Index revealed that the most valued ethnospecies are mullet, hake and croaker. Although overlaps between ethnospecies and the Guiana dolphin diet are noted, no direct conflicts were recorded. Some fishers perceive the presence of dolphins in a positive light, associating them with helping them locate fish, while others view the interaction negatively, considering that dolphins feed on fish caught in nets. Most fishers (56.8%) are not bothered by the presence of dolphins during fishing, and 82.95% stated that they do not interfere. Although 45.4% of fishers believe that dolphins can get entangled in fishing gear, there were no records of intentional captures. The importance of conservation and environmental education strategies is highlighted to ensure harmonious coexistence between fishers and Guiana dolphins.

Epidemiologic surveillance of hepatitis E virus in over 300 free-ranging and captive cetaceans in waters off Spain revealed extensive exposure to this pathogen. We suggest the persistent and widespread presence of hepatitis E in the marine environment off the coast of Spain may be driven by terrestrial sources of contamination.

We report a disease and mortality event involving swans, seals, and a fox at a wildlife rehabilitation center in the United Kingdom during late 2020. Five swans had onset of highly pathogenic avian influenza virus infection while in captivity. Subsequently, 5 seals and a fox died (or were euthanized) after onset of clinical disease. Avian-origin influenza A virus subtype H5N8 was retrospectively determined as the cause of disease. Infection in the seals manifested as seizures, and immunohistochemical and molecular testing on postmortem samples detected a neurologic distribution of viral products. The fox died overnight after sudden onset of inappetence, and postmortem tissues revealed neurologic and respiratory distribution of viral products. Live virus was isolated from the swans, seals, and the fox, and a single genetic change was detected as a potential adaptive mutation in the mammalian-derived viral sequences. No human influenza-like illness was reported in the weeks after the event.

Effects of constructing the DanTysk offshore wind farm (German Bight, 80 turbines, 6 m diameter foundations) were studied by passive acoustic monitoring of pile-driving noise and harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena echolocation. An acoustic deterrence device (seal scarer) was used to protect porpoises from hearing loss and bubble curtains were used to attenuate the pile-driving noise. Porpoise occurrence, quantified by echolocation signals, decreased when the seal scarer was engaged, during pile driving and up to 5 h after pile driving stopped. This effect extended out to 12 km, less than the 18–25 km reported from other pile drivings performed without bubble curtains. The bubble curtains thus effectively reduced the temporary habitat loss and risk of hearing loss. The 2 bubble curtains each attenuated the noise by between 7 and 10 dB, when used separately, and 12 dB when used together. Attenuation was most pronounced above 1 kHz, where the pile-driving noise at larger distances was comparable to or lower than ambient noise. This suggests that noise regulation should be based on frequency-weighted sound levels in addition to broadband levels, to assure that mitigation measures are effective in reducing impact on animals and not only in fulfilling legal requirements. The strong reaction to the seal scarer raises concern that it may surpass the reactions to the pile-driving noise itself, when operating with bubble curtains, and calls for a re-evaluation of the specifications of seal scarer sounds.

Cetaceans are a clade of highly specialized aquatic mammals that include the largest animals that have ever lived. The largest whales can have ∼1,000× more cells than a human, with long lifespans, leaving them theoretically susceptible to cancer. However, large-bodied and long-lived animals do not suffer higher risks of cancer mortality than humans—an observation known as Peto’s Paradox. To investigate the genomic bases of gigantism and other cetacean adaptations, we generated a de novo genome assembly for the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) and incorporated the genomes of ten cetacean species in a comparative analysis. We found further evidence that rorquals (family Balaenopteridae) radiated during the Miocene or earlier, and inferred that perturbations in abundance and/or the interocean connectivity of North Atlantic humpback whale populations likely occurred throughout the Pleistocene. Our comparative genomic results suggest that the evolution of cetacean gigantism was accompanied by strong selection on pathways that are directly linked to cancer. Large segmental duplications in whale genomes contained genes controlling the apoptotic pathway, and genes inferred to be under accelerated evolution and positive selection in cetaceans were enriched for biological processes such as cell cycle checkpoint, cell signaling, and proliferation. We also inferred positive selection on genes controlling the mammalian appendicular and cranial skeletal elements in the cetacean lineage, which are relevant to extensive anatomical changes during cetacean evolution. Genomic analyses shed light on the molecular mechanisms underlying cetacean traits, including gigantism, and will contribute to the development of future targets for human cancer therapies.

Sperm whalePhyseter macrocephalushabitat preferences are still poorly understood in the Mediterranean, despite the population being classified as ‘Endangered’ by the IUCN. Techniques to make the best use of multiple data sources are important in improving this situation. This work provides a detailed evaluation of sperm whale distribution and habitat use around the Balearic Islands using a novel analytical framework that combines transect and follow data while accounting for any autocorrelation present. During dedicated research cruises (2003 to 2008), sperm whales were located by listening at regular intervals along a search track and subsequently followed acoustically. Sperm whales were encountered 56 times and followed for periods ranging from a few hours to 3 d. Logistic Generalized Additive Models were used to model the probability of whale presence across the study area as a function of environmental variables, and Generalized Estimating Equations were used to account for autocorrelation. The results suggest that sperm whales do not use the region uniformly and that topography plays a key role in shaping their distribution. Moreover, solitary individuals were found to use the habitat differently from groups. This segregation appeared to be driven by water temperature and might reflect different needs or intraspecific competition. By shedding light on sperm whale habitat preference in such a critical area, this study represents an important step towards the implementation of conservation measures for this population.

Pacific Whale Foundation (PWF) Eco-Adventures operates a fleet of nine ecotour vessels in Maui, Hawaii and has used these vessels as an opportunistic research platform since 2010. The researchers at PWF have utilized ecotour vessels as a platform of opportunity (PoP) to collect photo-ID data, through a program called Researcher-on-Board (ROB) and for the development of an application to log cetacean sightings, called Whale and Dolphin Tracker (WDT). In this article we compare the amount of data collected using these two methods and contrast to systematic research surveys taking place in the same location and same time period to demonstrate the value of citizen science. Both the ROB and WDT programs have been shown to be cost-effective alternatives to surveys aboard dedicated research vessels, with the additional benefit of having tour operations contribute directly to the management and monitoring of marine mammals.