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Childbearing motivations are trait-like dispositions to feel, think, and act in a certain way in response to various aspects of parenthood. They shape human desire to have a child and underpin the decision about becoming a parent. A self-report tool to measure positive and negative childbearing motivations with their specific dimensions—the Childbearing Questionnaire (CBQ)—was developed in the US and has gained popularity over the past few decades as an increasing number of individuals choose not to have children. In the current article we present two studies, in which we developed and psychometrically validated a short version of the CBQ (The Childbearing Questionnaire-Short Form; CBQ-SF). In Study 1, we developed the CBQ-SF and verified its psychometric properties using a sample of 939 childless adults (25–44 years old). In Study 2, we cross-validated the CBQ-SF on a sample of 1803 childless adolescents aged from 18 to 20. Overall, our findings demonstrated that the CBQ-SF is a psychometrically sound instrument for comprehensively assessing childbearing motivations across different developmental periods (from late adolescence to middle adulthood). Most notably, our short measure preserves the multidimensionality of childbearing motivations and allows individuals’ motivational profiles for parenthood to be identified. Future research directions and practical implications are discussed. Highlights Childbearing motivations reflect individuals’ beliefs about parenthood and may influence various parenting behaviors. Across two studies, we developed and evaluated psychometric properties of a short measure of childbearing motivations—CBQ-SF. We documented that CBQ-SF is a reliable measure of childbearing motivations and provided first evidence on its validity. The CBQ-SF can be successfully used in public health research and therapeutic settings.

Highly educated women’s likelihood of combining childrearing with continuous employment over the life course has increased among recent U.S. cohorts. This trend is less evident in many postindustrial countries characterized by very low fertility. Among such countries, Japan and Korea have exceptionally low proportions of women who remain employed after having children, despite aggressive government policies designed to encourage this. We draw on over 160 in-depth interviews with highly educated Japanese and Korean men and women of childbearing age to uncover the central incompatibilities between married women’s employment and childrearing. Individuals’ narratives reveal how labor market structure and workplace norms contribute to a highly gendered household division of labor, leading many married women to either forsake employment or to consider having only one child.

In what ways do childbearing patterns in the contemporary United States vary for white, black, and Hispanic women? Why do these differences exist? Although completed family size is currently similar for white and black women, and only modestly larger for Hispanic women, we highlight persistent differences across groups with respect to the timing of childbearing, the relationship context of childbearing, and the extent to which births are intended. We next evaluate key explanations for these differences. Guided by a proximate determinants approach, we focus here on patterns of sexual activity, contraceptive use, and postconception outcomes such as abortion and changes in mothers' relationship status. We find contraceptive use to be a particularly important contributor to racial and ethnic differences in childbearing, yet reasons for varying contraception use itself remain insufficiently understood. We end by reflecting on promising directions for further research.

By the early 21st century, most high-income countries have put into effect a host of generous and virtually gender-neutral parental leave policies and family benefits, with the multiple goals of gender equity, higher fertility, and child development. What have been the effects? Proponents typically emphasize the contribution of family policies to the goals of gender equity and child development, enabling women to combine careers and motherhood, and altering social norms regarding gender roles. Opponents often warn that family policies may become a long-term hindrance to women's careers because of the loss of work experience and the higher costs to employers that hire women of childbearing age. We draw lessons from existing work and our own analysis on the effects of parental leave and other interventions aimed at aiding families. We present country- and micro-level evidence on the effects of family policy on gender outcomes, focusing on female employment, gender gaps in earnings, and fertility. Most estimates range from negligible to a small positive impact. But the verdict is far more positive for the beneficial impact of spending on early education and child care.

The Childbearing Motivations Scale (CMS) is a multidimensional self-report measure of positive and negative motivations influencing the decision to become a parent. This study aimed to validate the Italian version of the CMS. A sample of 522 participants (27% men and 73% women) aged from 18 to 55 years was recruited. The four-factor model for the positive subscale and the five-factor model for the negative subscale of the CMS demonstrated a good fit. Reliability values ranged from 0.70 to 0.91. Both factors had evidence for convergent validity with sex, age, and relationship duration: women reported lower in some of the negative motivations to become a mother in contrast to men. Moreover, the greater the age, the lower the negative motivations for becoming a parent. Those in a longer relationship indicated lower negative motivations. No significant correlations were found for the positive motivations subscale. Significant differences were found for income levels (low vs. medium/high) regarding personal fulfillment, financial problems, and body-image concerns, as well as in cultural levels (medium vs. high) concerning economic constraints, intergenerational continuity, immaturity, and physical suffering. These findings suggest that individuals with lower economic resources scored higher across all these areas on the Negative Childbearing Motivations subscale. Our findings indicate that the CMS can be used to reliably assess the motivations for parenthood among Italian men and women.

Background Aortic aneurysms (AA) pose a significant risk to women of childbearing age due to the added physiological stress of pregnancy and hormonal changes. This study aims to assess the global disease burden of AA among women of childbearing age from 1990 to 2021, project future trends, and provide evidence-based insights to inform public health policies and clinical decision-making. Methods Aortic aneurysm mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) data for women of childbearing age (15–49 years) from 1990 to 2021 were extracted from the 2021 Global Burden of Disease (GBD) dataset. Temporal trends and attributable risks were evaluated using estimated annual percentage change (EAPC) and linear regression model from 1990 to 2021. Cluster analysis identified patterns across GBD regions. The Socio-demographic Index (SDI) assessed regional and national differences in mortality and DALYs rates related to AA. In addition, all potential risk determinants associated with AA were systematically examined. An age-period-cohort model assessed trends, period, and cohort effects, while the Bayesian age-period-cohort model predicted the disease burden through 2036. Results In 2021, AA was associated with 2,552 (95% UI: 2,273 to 2,827) mortality and 86,466 (95% UI: 72,510 to 115,049) DALYs counts worldwide among women of childbearing age. The age-standardized mortality rate (ASMR) and age-standardized DALYs rate for AA decreased from 1.58 (95% UI: 1.41 to 1.76) to 1.28 (95% UI: 1.10 to 1.42), and from 28.52 (95% UI: 25.56 to 32.53) to 23.01 (95% UI: 20.49 to 25.27), respectively, between 1990 and 2021. By SDI quintile, the EAPC for both mortality and DALYs increased in the low-middle and middle SDI regions. Using the average age, period, and cohort as reference groups, the risk of AA death increased with age [RR age (15−19)  = 0.026 to RR age (45−49)  = 0.384]. The risk of DALYs followed a similar age-related trend. Among the risk factors associated with AA, mortality counts and DALYs attributable to smoking declined over time, whereas those related to high systolic blood pressure and high body mass index (BMI) showed increasing trends. Predicted results indicate that mortality and DALY rates among women of childbearing age are expected to continue declining from 2022 to 2036. Conclusions Although the global burden of AA among women of childbearing age is decreasing, significant regional disparities persist, and the rising prevalence of hypertension and high BMI poses ongoing challenges. Strengthened prevention strategies targeting modifiable risk factors are urgently needed to further reduce disease burden and promote health equity. Graphical Abstract

Understanding how having children influences parents' subjective well-being (\"happiness\") has great potential to explain fertility behavior. We study parental happiness trajectories before and after the birth of a child, using large British and German longitudinal data sets. We account for unobserved parental characteristics using fixed-effects models and study how sociodemographic factors modify the parental happiness trajectories. Consistent with existing work, we find that happiness increases in the years around the birth of a first child and then decreases to before-child levels. Moreover, happiness increases before birth, suggesting that the trajectories may capture not only the effect of the birth but also the broader process of childbearing, which may include partnership formation and quality. Sociodemographic factors strongly modify this pattern. Those who have children at older ages or who have more education have a particularly positive happiness response to a first birth; and although having the first two children increases happiness, having a third child does not. The results, which are similar in Britain and Germany, suggest that having up to two children increases happiness, and mostly for those who have postponed childbearing. This pattern is consistent with the fertility behavior that emerged during the second demographic transition and provides new insights into low and late fertility.

The premise that unintended childbearing has significant negative effects on the behavior of mothers and on the health of infants strongly influences public health policy and much of current research on reproductive behaviors. Yet, the evidence base presents mixed findings. Using data from the U.S. National Survey of Family Growth, we employ a measure of pregnancy intentions that incorporates the extent of mistiming, as well as the desire scale developed by Santelli et al. (Studies in Family Planning, 40, 87-100, 2009). Second, we examine variation in the characteristics of mothers within intention status groups. Third, we account for the association of mothers' background characteristics with their pregnancy intentions and with the outcomes by employing propensity score weighting. We find that weighting eliminated statistical significance of many observed associations of intention status with maternal behaviors and birth outcomes, but not all. Mistimed and unwanted births were still less likely to be recognized early in pregnancy than intended ones. Fewer unwanted births received early prenatal care or were breast-fed, and unwanted births were also more likely than intended births to be of low birth weight. Relative to births at the highest level of the desire scale, all other births were significantly less likely to be recognized early in pregnancy and to receive early prenatal care.

In a sample of over one million Swedish first-born offspring, we examined associations between early maternal age at first childbirth (MAFC; i.e., < 20 and 20–24 vs 25–29 years) and offspring non-accidental deaths, accidental deaths, deaths by suicide, non-fatal accidents, and suicide attempts. We included year of birth and several maternal and paternal characteristics as covariates and conducted maternal cousin comparisons to adjust for unmeasured confounding. Early MAFC (e.g., teenage childbearing) was associated with all outcomes, with the most pronounced risk elevation for accidental deaths [Hazard Ratio (HR) < 20 2.50, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.23, 2.80], suicides (HR < 20 2.08, 95% CI 1.79, 2.41), and suicide attempts (HR < 20 2.85, 95% CI 2.71, 3.00). Adjusting for covariates and comparing cousins greatly attenuated associations (e.g., accidental deaths HR < 20 1.61, 95% CI 1.22, 2.11; suicides HR < 20 1.01, 95% CI 0.69, 1.47; and suicide attempts HR < 20 1.35, 95% CI 1.19, 1.52). A similar pattern emerged for non-accidental deaths and non-fatal accidents. Therefore, results indicated maternal background factors may be largely responsible for observed associations.

The Visegrád countries (Hungary, Czech Republic, Poland, and Slovakia) faced a sharp decline in fertility rates after the regime change in 1989. Since then, total fertility rates have largely remained below the EU average, although they have increased during the past decade. Family policies (support for the parental caregivingmodel) and the conditions of women’s employment might be shaping these trends. Besides the pronatalist rhetoric, there is another reason why people might alter their fertility plans: climate change‐related worries. Our analysis in this article examines whether such concerns exist in these four countries, pointing out that the efficacy of pronatalist measures depends on the widespread adoption of such attitudes among young people of childbearing age. Pronatalist pressure is strong in the V4 countries but may be diluted by strengthening environmentalist norms. Scholarship about the relationship between climate change‐related concerns and fertility in these pronatalist countries is scarce. I examine this potential relationship by analysing respondents’ ideas about the generally and personally ideal number of children using Eurobarometer data from 2011 through logistic regression analysis. The results are contradictory: Climate change concerns seem to be positively associated with a smaller ideal family size in Hungary, but only from a general perspective (i.e., not for respondents personally). A positive relationship can be found in the Czech Republic regarding climate concerns and personal ideal family size. In Slovakia, a strong negative association was observed between climate change‐related concerns and smaller general and personal ideal family sizes.