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This paper develops an anthropological perspective on contextualizing entrepreneurship. We argue that interconnectedness is the quintessence of such a perspective and takes the form of (1) sociocultural ties between people; (2) interrelationships between micro, meso, and macro levels; and (3) connections between the past and the present. We illustrate this perspective through our research among ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs in Southeast Asia, identifying three kinds of sociocultural ties among the ethnic Chinese (kinship, spiritual, and patron-client ties) and positioning these ties in the historical and contemporary experiences of Chinese migration, settlement, and business venturing. In doing so, we show that an anthropological perspective broadens the empirical scope (including developing countries, minority groups, and “everyday” entrepreneurship), the methodological scope (employing ethnographic methods), and the conceptual scope (considering sociocultural ties at the interpersonal level) of entrepreneurship research. The contribution lies in operationalizing and theorizing context: we operationalize context through interconnectedness – comprising our three forms as well as ethnographic methodology to examine these – and theorize interconnectedness by elaborating how entrepreneurs “do” context through enacting the sociocultural ties that “embody” this context, while considering the micro-meso-macro and past-present connections that have engendered these ties. Our anthropological perspective presents a fine-grained and holistic analytical framework for contextualizing entrepreneurship.Plain English SummaryAnthropology can broaden current understandings of how context is perceived in entrepreneurship research. As the study of how people live and experience the world around them, anthropology explores social relationships and their cultural meanings – sociocultural ties – to provide insights into the everyday of the people and communities studied. Such sociocultural ties can also illuminate how entrepreneurs enact context, a missing link in entrepreneurship research. Based on research among ethnic Chinese entrepreneurs in Cambodia and Indonesia, three kinds of sociocultural ties are presented that play a key role in their entrepreneurship: kinship ties (shared family and ethnic background), patronage ties (interdependence of politicians and entrepreneurs), and spiritual ties (membership of religious communities). It is through these ties that context is enacted at the micro level and entwines with the entrepreneurial process. To debunk the idea that context equals external setting, we invite entrepreneurship researchers to include sociocultural ties to reveal how entrepreneurs enact context.

This book provides a well-documented analysis of the strategy of the Salim Group, one of the largest family conglomerates in Southeast Asia. Using a multitude of sources, including interviews with the Salim family and Salim Group managers, the author provides a comprehensive corporate biography of this fascinating family firm. The Rhythm of Strategy: A Corporate Biography of the Salim Group of Indonesia criticises existing theories on ethnic Chinese firms and instead provides a more nuanced view of the evolution of a small migrant trading business into the largest family business group in Southeast Asia. It argues that the strategy of this group oscillated irregularly between a business model built on connections and a professional business model adapted to markets. Due to its size and closeness to the Suharto regime, the Salim Group has played an important role in shaping Indonesia's economy. This title is available in the OAPEN Library - http://www.oapen.org.

This book argues that using social capital to eradicate poverty is less likely to succeed because the mainstream neoinstitutional approach mistakenly assumes that social capital necessarily benefits poor people. This inadequacy calls for a re-assessment of human motivations, institutional dynamics and structural complexity in social capital building. Using ethnographic and participatory methods, this book calls for an exploration of 'unseen' social capital which is intended to challenge the mainstream understanding of 'seen' social capital. As such this book is useful to policy makers and practitioners. Exploring 'Unseen' Social Capital in Community Participation stelt vraagtekens bij de gangbare benaderingen van sociaal kapitaal, die zich uitsluitend concentreren op de kwantificering van netwerken. Dit boek stelt juist dat het succes van deelname aan een gemeenschap afhangt van hoe goed we de instituties en structuren in beeld kunnen brengen die mede het maatschappelijk functioneren van arme migranten beïnvloeden. Door gebruik te maken van participatieve en etnografische methoden maakt dit boek voor het eerst 'onzichtbaar' sociaal kapitaal zichtbaar dat eigen is aan interpersoonlijke relaties. Deze relaties worden gevormd op grond van uiteenlopende beweegredenen en zij ontwikkelen zich naar gelang veranderingen in levensomstandigheden. Dit boek is niet alleen van belang voor beleidsmakers op sociaal terrein maar ook voor veldwerkers en iedereen die belangstelling heeft voor de gevolgen van en mogelijkheden die migratie biedt.

This paper documents the influence of diaspora networks of highly-skilled individuals—that is, inventors—on international technological collaborations. Using gravity models, it studies the determinants of the internationalization of inventive activity between a group of industrialized countries and a sample of developing and emerging economies. The paper examines the influence exerted by skilled diasporas in fostering cross-country co-inventorship as well as R&D offshoring. The study finds a strong and robust relationship between inventor diasporas and different forms of international co-patenting. However, the effect decreases with the level of formality of the interactions. Interestingly, some of the most successful diasporas recently documented—namely, Chinese and Indian ones—do not govern the results.

The migration of young Chinese scientists to undertake graduate studies in U.S. universities is arguably one of the most important recent episodes of skilled migration. Using a new data set covering around 16,000 Ph.D. graduates in 161 U.S. chemistry departments, we show that Chinese students have a scientific output during their thesis that is significantly higher than other students. In fact, conditional on acceptance into the same programs, Chinese students perform about as well as the awardees of the NSF doctoral fellowship program. These results shed new light on the benefits of student migration on scientific productivity of destination countries.

Overseas Chinese communities are an important determinant in the location choice of greenfield investments made by mainland Chinese multinational enterprises across European regions. Conceptually embedded in a relational approach, this effect is shown through an empirical analysis of an exhaustive set of investment projects across NUTS-1 regions in twenty-six European countries for the period 2003-2010. When controlling for endogeneity bias and the embeddedness of existing Chinese economic activity, we find that the importance of overseas communities in the location choices of Chinese firms is based on increased access to strategic information. Our results confirm that the relationship between the size of an overseas Chinese community and the probability of Chinese investment is stronger for communities hosting newer generations of Chinese migrants; in addition, they partially corroborate that this relationship is stronger when the education level of the community's Chinese migrants is higher. Our findings are particularly robust in the context of knowledge-intensive sectors and high value-added functions.

Purpose This study aims to contribute to social identity theory in tourism by exploring the reflections of Chinese tourists visiting North Korea and how they negotiate their intergroup identity in this similar-others destination. Design/methodology/approach Data were collected via online platforms and in-depth interviews. A qualitative approach, i.e. thematic analysis, was used to analyse the two sets of data. Findings Results showed that when encountering North Koreans perceived as similar others amid the social, economic and political environments in which they were embedded, Chinese tourists often categorised themselves as ordinary tourists, preferentially treated tourists and vicarious tourists based on intergroup similarities to North Koreans. They also performed intergroup comparison to boost their self-esteem at group and collective levels and developed corresponding strategies to generate distinct emotional group commitments. Practical implications It is recommended that destinations reinforce the friendly and unique relationship with their similar-others source markets to improve their attractiveness. Destinations should also strive to enhance the experience of tourists from their similar-others markets by arousing their positive collective-level affection, emotional resonance and nostalgic memories and avoiding negative emotions. Originality/value This study offers a theoretical framework analysing the features of tourists’ social identities while visiting a similar-others destination, contributing to our understanding of the interactive and contingency nature of social identity in tourism, and responding to the call for addressing the broader social contexts in which tourists’ group identity is embedded. 目的 本文致力于探索赴朝中国游客的反思以及他们在这个“类似他者”目的地如何协商群际身份, 以对旅游领域的身份认同理论做出贡献。 设计/方案 本文运用主题分析方法; 资料来源于网络文本和深度访谈。 发现 当中国游客面对被视为“类似他者”的朝鲜人时（具有相似的社会、经济和政治环境）, 他们会根据与朝鲜人的群际相似性, 将自我分类为“普通游客”、“受优待者”和“过来人”三类。此外, 他们还会通过群际比较来提高群体层面和集体层面的自尊, 并且采取对应策略以产生不同的群体承诺。 价值 本文提出了一个分析游客访问“类似他者”目的地时的社会认同的理论框架, 对理解旅游中的社会认同的互动性和偶然性做出了贡献, 并响应了在考察游客群体认同时关注其所处的更广泛的社会背景的呼吁。 实践启示 目的地应该强化它们与“类似他者”客源市场之间友好且独特的关系, 以提升自身吸引力。目的地还应该唤醒游客积极的集体情感和怀旧, 产生主客情感共鸣, 并避免负面情绪, 以尽力提升来自“类似他者”客源地的游客的体验。 Propósito Este estudio pretende contribuir a la teoría de la identidad social en turismo mediante la exploración de las reflexiones de los turistas chinos que visitan Corea del Norte y cómo negocian su identidad intergrupal en este destino similar a otros. Diseño/metodología/enfoque Los datos se recogieron mediante plataformas en línea y entrevistas en profundidad. Se utilizó un enfoque cualitativo a través de análisis temático para analizar los dos conjuntos de datos. Resultados Los resultados mostraron que, al encontrarse con norcoreanos percibidos como otros similares en el entorno social, económico y político en el que estaban integrados, los turistas chinos a menudo se categorizaban a sí mismos como turistas ordinarios, turistas con trato preferente y turistas vicarios basándose en las similitudes intergrupales con los norcoreanos. También, realizaban comparaciones intergrupales para aumentar su autoestima a nivel grupal y colectivo, y desarrollaban las estrategias correspondientes para generar distintos compromisos emocionales grupales. Originalidad/valor Se presenta un marco teórico en el que se analizan las características de las identidades sociales de los turistas que visitan un destino similar a otro, lo que contribuye a nuestra comprensión de la naturaleza interactiva y contingente de la identidad social en turismo y responde a la necesidad de abordar los contextos sociales más amplios en los que se inserta la identidad de grupo de los turistas. Implicaciones prácticas Se recomienda que los destinos refuercen las relaciones amistosas y únicas con sus mercados emisores similares para mejorar su atractividad. Los destinos deberían esforzarse por mejorar la experiencia de los turistas de sus mercados emisores similares, estimulando su afecto positivo a nivel colectivo, su resonancia emocional y sus recuerdos nostálgicos, y evitando las emociones negativas.

The purpose of this quantitative study of 401 students is to identify common motivations for Chinese students to plagiarize on written English assignments and ultimately to demystify and understand the mindset of Chinese students who do plagiarize. According to a regression analysis of these data, the most significant factor relating to likelihood to self-report plagiarism for Chinese students is the belief in a \"standard answer,\" which represents the correct answer to a given question. The regression results also suggest that students who believe that imitation of experts is important to learning are more likely to self-report plagiarism, and that business students are more likely to self-report than non-business students. The other factors examined in our model, such as English writing ability; ability to express one's self in English writing; embarrassment about English writing ability; concern for accuracy of English writing; and concerns about grade point average, were not significant predictors of self-reported plagiarism. These results give a key insight into the English writing plagiarism behaviors of Chinese students studying in Western higher education.