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Chip war : the fight for the world's most critical technology
\"An epic account of the decades-long battle to control what has emerged as the world's most critical resource--microchip technology--with the United States and China increasingly in conflict. You may be surprised to learn that microchips are the new oil--the scarce resource on which the modern world depends. Today, military, economic, and geopolitical power are built on a foundation of computer chips. Virtually everything--from missiles to microwaves, smartphones to the stock market--runs on chips. Until recently, America designed and built the fastest chips and maintained its lead as the #1 superpower. Now, America's edge is slipping, undermined by competitors in Taiwan, Korea, Europe, and, above all, China. Today, as Chip War reveals, China, which spends more money each year importing chips than it spends importing oil, is pouring billions into a chip-building initiative to catch up to the US. At stake is America's military superiority and economic prosperity. Economic historian Chris Miller explains how the semiconductor came to play a critical role in modern life and how the U.S. become dominant in chip design and manufacturing and applied this technology to military systems. America's victory in the Cold War and its global military dominance stems from its ability to harness computing power more effectively than any other power. But here, too, China is catching up, with its chip-building ambitions and military modernization going hand in hand. America has let key components of the chip-building process slip out of its grasp, contributing not only to a worldwide chip shortage but also a new Cold War with a superpower adversary that is desperate to bridge the gap. Illuminating, timely, and fascinating, Chip War shows that, to make sense of the current state of politics, economics, and technology, we must first understand the vital role played by chips\"--Amazon.
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Correction: User authentication system based on human exhaled breath physics
[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0301971.].
Journal Article
Integrating Organs-on-Chips: Multiplexing, Scaling, Vascularization, and Innervation
Organs-on-chips (OoCs) have attracted significant attention because they can be designed to mimic in vivo environments. Beyond constructing a single OoC, recent efforts have tried to integrate multiple OoCs to broaden potential applications such as disease modeling and drug discoveries. However, various challenges remain for integrating OoCs towards in vivo-like operation, such as incorporating various connections for integrating multiple OoCs. We review multiplexed OoCs and challenges they face: scaling, vascularization, and innervation. In our opinion, future OoCs will be constructed to have increased predictive power for in vivo phenomena and will ultimately become a mainstream tool for high quality biomedical and pharmaceutical research.
Major considerations for integrating organs-on-chips (OoCs) include scaling and interconnection via vascularization and innervation.Scaling rules are crucial for predicting events that occur in vivo, but so far, there are no optimal scaling rules for microsystems.To develop scaling rules for microsystems, data should be acquired using mesoscale approaches by using in vitro tissues fabricated by bioreactors or 3D printing.Beyond numerous OoC models of vascularization, organ-specific microvasculature and the main connections between each organ part should also be considered for mimicking the in vivo vascular system.There are still few examples of on-chip innervation, but innervated OoCs and neuronal connections between each part in vitro will give new insights into corresponding in vivo behavior.
Journal Article
A graph placement methodology for fast chip design
Chip floorplanning is the engineering task of designing the physical layout of a computer chip. Despite five decades of research
1
, chip floorplanning has defied automation, requiring months of intense effort by physical design engineers to produce manufacturable layouts. Here we present a deep reinforcement learning approach to chip floorplanning. In under six hours, our method automatically generates chip floorplans that are superior or comparable to those produced by humans in all key metrics, including power consumption, performance and chip area. To achieve this, we pose chip floorplanning as a reinforcement learning problem, and develop an edge-based graph convolutional neural network architecture capable of learning rich and transferable representations of the chip. As a result, our method utilizes past experience to become better and faster at solving new instances of the problem, allowing chip design to be performed by artificial agents with more experience than any human designer. Our method was used to design the next generation of Google’s artificial intelligence (AI) accelerators, and has the potential to save thousands of hours of human effort for each new generation. Finally, we believe that more powerful AI-designed hardware will fuel advances in AI, creating a symbiotic relationship between the two fields.
Machine learning tools are used to greatly accelerate chip layout design, by posing chip floorplanning as a reinforcement learning problem and using neural networks to generate high-performance chip layouts.
Journal Article
Tailoring light on three-dimensional photonic chips: a platform for versatile OAM mode optical interconnects
Explosive growth in demand for data traffic has prompted exploration of the spatial dimension of light waves, which provides a degree of freedom to expand data transmission capacity. Various techniques based on bulky optical devices have been proposed to tailor light waves in the spatial dimension. However, their inherent large size, extra loss, and precise alignment requirements make these techniques relatively difficult to implement in a compact and flexible way. In contrast, three-dimensional (3D) photonic chips with compact size and low loss provide a promising miniaturized candidate for tailoring light in the spatial dimension. Significantly, they are attractive for chip-assisted short-distance spatial mode optical interconnects that are challenging to bulky optics. Here, we propose and fabricate femtosecond laser-inscribed 3D photonic chips to tailor orbital angular momentum (OAM) modes in the spatial dimension. Various functions on the platform of 3D photonic chips are experimentally demonstrated, including the generation, (de)multiplexing, and exchange of OAM modes. Moreover, chip-chip and chip–fiber–chip short-distance optical interconnects using OAM modes are demonstrated in the experiment with favorable performance. This work paves the way to flexibly tailor light waves on 3D photonic chips and offers a compact solution for versatile optical interconnects and other emerging applications with spatial modes.
Journal Article
Microfluidic Gut-liver chip for reproducing the first pass metabolism
After oral intake of drugs, drugs go through the first pass metabolism in the gut and the liver, which greatly affects the final outcome of the drugs’ efficacy and side effects. The first pass metabolism is a complex process involving the gut and the liver tissue, with transport and reaction occurring simultaneously at various locations, which makes it difficult to be reproduced
in vitro
with conventional cell culture systems. In an effort to tackle this challenge, here we have developed a microfluidic gut-liver chip that can reproduce the dynamics of the first pass metabolism. The microfluidic chip consists of two separate layers for gut epithelial cells (Caco-2) and the liver cells (HepG2), and is designed so that drugs go through a sequential absorption in the gut chamber and metabolic reaction in the liver chamber. We fabricated the chip and showed that the two different cell lines can be successfully co-cultured on chip. When the two cells are cultured on chip, changes in the physiological function of Caco-2 and HepG2 cells were noted. The cytochrome P450 metabolic activity of both cells were significantly enhanced, and the absorptive property of Caco-2 cells on chip also changed in response to the presence of flow. Finally, first pass metabolism of a flavonoid, apigenin, was evaluated as a model compound, and co-culture of gut and liver cells on chip resulted in a metabolic profile that is closer to the reported profile than a monoculture of gut cells. This microfluidic gut-liver chip can potentially be a useful platform to study the complex first pass metabolism of drugs
in vitro
.
Journal Article
Filtration Analysis of Microparticles Using Paper-Based Microfluidics
A virus is a sub-microscopic infectious organism that causes diseases in humans, animals, and plants resulting in morbidity and may cause mortality. Proper diagnosis is necessary to initiate the treatment and pave the way to eradicate the viral infection. The current diagnostic kits for nucleic acid amplification assay, blood filtration, single-cell analysis are highly accurate, even though the procedure necessitates large sample volumes, complicated fabrication steps, time-consuming processes, and high costs. The filtration of viral samples from the blood is a tedious process. In this research, we have presented a home-based fabricated paper microfluidic chip to effectively filtrate viral particles from the sample to facilitate the nucleic acid amplification assay. The filtration analysis was exhibited for lateral and vertical flow paper chips fabricated via laser printing and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) encapsulation that circumvents the necessity of a traditional wax printer and hot plate. The results convey that the vertical flow paper chip with grade 4 inlet and outlet filters 98.57% of unnecessary particles from the sample. The paper-based microfluidic chip developed in this research is simple, easy to fabricate, and inexpensive to access in underdeveloped countries. The paper chip can pave the way for applications like lab-on-chip devices, POC assays, rapid nucleic acid amplification tests, cell cultures, and biomolecular research.
Journal Article
A Decade of Organs-on-a-Chip Emulating Human Physiology at the Microscale: A Critical Status Report on Progress in Toxicology and Pharmacology
Organ-on-a-chip technology has the potential to accelerate pharmaceutical drug development, improve the clinical translation of basic research, and provide personalized intervention strategies. In the last decade, big pharma has engaged in many academic research cooperations to develop organ-on-a-chip systems for future drug discoveries. Although most organ-on-a-chip systems present proof-of-concept studies, miniaturized organ systems still need to demonstrate translational relevance and predictive power in clinical and pharmaceutical settings. This review explores whether microfluidic technology succeeded in paving the way for developing physiologically relevant human in vitro models for pharmacology and toxicology in biomedical research within the last decade. Individual organ-on-a-chip systems are discussed, focusing on relevant applications and highlighting their ability to tackle current challenges in pharmacological research.
Journal Article
Implementing organ-on-chip in a next-generation risk assessment of chemicals: a review
Organ-on-chip (OoC) technology is full of engineering and biological challenges, but it has the potential to revolutionize the Next-Generation Risk Assessment of novel ingredients for consumer products and chemicals. A successful incorporation of OoC technology into the Next-Generation Risk Assessment toolbox depends on the robustness of the microfluidic devices and the organ tissue models used. Recent advances in standardized device manufacturing, organ tissue cultivation and growth protocols offer the ability to bridge the gaps towards the implementation of organ-on-chip technology. Next-Generation Risk Assessment is an exposure-led and hypothesis-driven tiered approach to risk assessment using detailed human exposure information and the application of appropriate new (non-animal) toxicological testing approaches. Organ-on-chip presents a promising in vitro approach by combining human cell culturing with dynamic microfluidics to improve physiological emulation. Here, we critically review commercial organ-on-chip devices, as well as recent tissue culture model studies of the skin, intestinal barrier and liver as the main metabolic organ to be used on-chip for Next-Generation Risk Assessment. Finally, microfluidically linked tissue combinations such as skin–liver and intestine–liver in organ-on-chip devices are reviewed as they form a relevant aspect for advancing toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic studies. We point to recent achievements and challenges to overcome, to advance non-animal, human-relevant safety studies.
Journal Article
High-resolution profiling of γH2AX around DNA double strand breaks in the mammalian genome
Chromatin acts as a key regulator of DNA‐related processes such as DNA damage repair. Although ChIP‐chip is a powerful technique to provide high‐resolution maps of protein–genome interactions, its use to study DNA double strand break (DSB) repair has been hindered by the limitations of the available damage induction methods. We have developed a human cell line that permits induction of multiple DSBs randomly distributed and unambiguously positioned within the genome. Using this system, we have generated the first genome‐wide mapping of γH2AX around DSBs. We found that all DSBs trigger large γH2AX domains, which spread out from the DSB in a bidirectional, discontinuous and not necessarily symmetrical manner. The distribution of γH2AX within domains is influenced by gene transcription, as parallel mappings of RNA Polymerase II and strand‐specific expression showed that γH2AX does not propagate on active genes. In addition, we showed that transcription is accurately maintained within γH2AX domains, indicating that mechanisms may exist to protect gene transcription from γH2AX spreading and from the chromatin rearrangements induced by DSBs.
Journal Article