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Extinctions typically have ecological drivers, such as habitat loss. However, extinction events are also influenced by policy and management settings that may be antithetical to biodiversity conservation, inadequate to prevent extinction, insufficiently resourced, or poorly implemented. Three endemic Australian vertebrate species—the Christmas Island pipistrelle (Pipistrellus murrayi), Bramble Cay melomys (Melomys tuhicob), and Christmas Island forest skink (Emoia mtivitatis)—became extinct from 2009 to 2014. All 3 extinctions were predictable and probably preventable. We sought to identify the policy, management, research, and other shortcomings that contributed to their extinctions or failed to prevent them. These included a lack within national environmental legislation and policy of explicit commitment to the prevention of avoidable extinctions, lack of explicit accountability, inadequate resources for conservation (particularly for species not considered charismatic or not of high taxonomic distinctiveness), inadequate biosecurity, a slow and inadequate process for listing species as threatened, recovery planning that failed to consider the need for emergency response, inability of researchers to identify major threatening factors, lack of public engagement and involvement in conservation decisions, and limited advocacy. From these 3 cases, we recommend: environmental policy explicitly seeks to prevent extinction of any species and provides a clear chain of accountability and an explicit requirement for public inquiry following any extinction; implementation of a timely and comprehensive process for listing species as threatened and for recovery planning; reservation alone not be assumed sufficient to maintain species; enhancement of biosecurity measures; allocation of sufficient resources to undertake actions necessary to prevent extinction; monitoring be considered a pivotal component of the conservation response; research provides timely identification of factors responsible for decline and of the risk of extinction; effective dissemination of research results; advocacy by an informed public for the recovery of threatened species; and public involvement in governance of the recovery process. These recommendations should be applicable broadly to reduce the likelihood and incidence of extinctions. Las extinciones tienen comúnmente conductores ecológicos, como la pérdida de hábitat. Sin embargo, los eventos de extinción también tienen influencia de la política y los ambientes de manejo que pueden ser anti-éticos para la conservación de la biodiversidad, inadecuados para prevenir la extinción, tener fondos insuficientes o estar implementados pobremente. Tres especies de vertebrados endémicos de Australia - el murciélago de Isla Navidad (Pipistrellus murrayi), el melomys de Cayo Bramble (Melomys rubicola) y el eslizón de bosque de Isla Navidad (Emoia nativitatis) - se extinguieron entre 2009 y 2014. Las tres extinciones fueron predecibles y probablemente prevenibles. Buscamos identificar la política, la administración, la investigación y otros defectos que contribuyeron a su extinción o que fallaron en prevenirlas. Los factores que contribuyeron a estas extinciones incluyen la carencia de un compromiso explícito con la prevención de las extinciones evitables dentro de la legislación ambiental nacional y la política, la carencia de una responsabilidad explícita, los recursos inadecuados para la conservación (particularmente para las especies que no son consideradas carismáticas o que no tienen una diferencia taxonómica alta), la bioseguridad inadecuada, el proceso lento e inadecuado para enlistar a las especies como amenazadas, la planeación de la recuperación que falló en considerar la necesidad de una respuesta de emergencia, la incapacidad de los investigadores de identificar factores de amenaza mayores, la falta de un compromiso público y la participación en las decisiones de conservación, y la defensa limitada. A partir de estos tres casos de extinción recomendamos una política ambiental que busque explícitamente prevenir la extinción de cualquier especie y que proporcione una cadena entendible de responsabilidad y un requerimiento explícito de la indagación pública después de cualquier extinción; la implementación de un proceso oportuno y comprensible para enlistar a las especies como amenazadas y para la planeación de la recuperación; que no se asuma que la reservación es la única forma de mantener a las especies; el mejoramiento de las medidas de bioseguridad; la asignación de suficientes recursos para llevar a cabo las acciones necesarias para prevenir la extinción; que el monitoreo no sea considerado como un componente crucial de la respuesta a la conservación; que las investigaciones proporcionen la identificación oportuna de los factores responsables de la declinación y del riesgo de extinción; la diseminación efectiva de los resultados de las investigaciones; y la defensa por parte de un público informado para la recuperación de las especies amenazadas; y la participación del público en la gobemanza del proceso de recuperación. Estas recomendaciones deberían ser aplicables de manera general para reducir la probabilidad y la incidencia de las extinciones.

Australian Palms offers an updated and thorough systematic and taxonomictreatment of the Australian palm flora, covering 60 species in 21 genera. Of these,54 species occur in continental Australia and six species on the off-shore territoriesof Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island and Christmas Island. Incorporating recent advances in biogeographic and phylogenetic research,Australian Palms provides a comprehensive introduction to the palm familyArecaceae, with reviews of botanical history, biogeography, phylogeny, ecology andconservation. Thorough descriptions of genera and species include notes on ecologyand typification, and keys and distribution maps assist with field recognition. Colourphotographs of habit, leaf, flowers, fruit and unique diagnostic characters alsofeature for each species. This work is the culmination of over 20 years of research into Australian palms,including extensive field-work and examination of herbarium specimens in Australia,South-East Asia, Europe and the USA.

Lava samples from the Christmas Island Seamount Province (CHRISP) record an extreme range in enriched mantle (EM) type Sr-Nd-Pb-Hf isotope signatures. Here we report osmium isotope data obtained on four samples from the youngest, Pliocene petit-spot phase (Upper Volcanic Series, UVS; ~4.4 Ma), and four samples from the earlier, Eocene (Lower Volcanic Series, LVS; ~40 Ma) shield building phase of Christmas Island. Osmium concentrations are low (5–82 ppt) with initial Os isotopic values (187Os/188Osi) ranging from (0.1230–0.1679). Along with additional new geochemical data (major and trace elements, Sr-Nd-Pb isotopes, olivine δ18O values), we demonstrate the following: (1) The UVS is consistent with melting of shallow Indian mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB) mantle enriched with both lower continental crust (LCC) and subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) components; and (2) The LVS is consistent with recycling of SCLM components related to Gondwana break-up. The SCLM component has FOZO or HIMU like characteristics. One of the LVS samples has less radiogenic Os (γOs –3.4) and provides evidence for the presence of ancient SCLM in the source. The geochemistry of the Christmas Island lava series supports the idea that continental breakup causes shallow recycling of lithospheric and lower crustal components into the ambient MORB mantle.

In multiply invaded ecosystems, introduced species should interact with each other as well as with native species. Invader-invader interactions may affect the success of further invaders by altering attributes of recipient communities and propagule pressure. The invasional meltdown hypothesis (IMH) posits that positive interactions among invaders initiate positive population-level feedback that intensifies impacts and promotes secondary invasions. IMH remains controversial: few studies show feedback between invaders that amplifies their effects, and none yet demonstrate facilitation of entry and spread of secondary invaders. Our results show that supercolonies of an alien ant, promoted by mutualism with introduced honeydew-secreting scale insects, permitted invasion by an exotic land snail on Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. Modeling of land snail spread over 750 sites across 135 km 2 over seven years showed that the probability of land snail invasion was facilitated 253-fold in ant supercolonies but impeded in intact forest where predaceous native land crabs remained abundant. Land snail occurrence at neighboring sites, a measure of propagule pressure, also promoted land snail spread. Site comparisons and experiments revealed that ant supercolonies, by killing land crabs but not land snails, disrupted biotic resistance and provided enemy-free space. Predation pressure on land snails was lower (28.6%), survival 115 times longer, and abundance 20-fold greater in supercolonies than in intact forest. Whole-ecosystem suppression of supercolonies reversed the probability of land snail invasion by allowing recolonization of land crabs; land snails were much less likely (0.79%) to invade sites where supercolonies were suppressed than where they remained intact. Our results provide strong empirical evidence for IMH by demonstrating that mutualism between invaders reconfigures key interactions in the recipient community. This facilitates entry of secondary invaders and elevates propagule pressure, propagating their spread at the whole-ecosystem level. We show that identification and management of key facilitative interactions in invaded ecosystems can be used to reverse impacts and restore resistance to further invasions.

In the terrestrial environment, endemic species and isolated populations of widespread species have the highest rates of extinction partly due to their low genetic diversity. To determine if this pattern holds in the marine environment, we examined genetic diversity in endemic coral reef angelfishes and isolated populations of widespread species. Specifically, this study tested the prediction that angelfish (genus: Centropyge) populations at Christmas and Cocos Islands have low genetic diversity. Analyses of a 436 base pair fragment of the mtDNA control region revealed that the endemic C. joculator exhibited high haplotype (h > 0.98 at both locations) and nucleotide (Christmas p% = 3.63, Cocos p% = 9.99) diversity. Similarly, isolated populations of widespread angelfishes (C. bispinosa and C. flavicauda) had high haplotype (h > 0.98) and nucleotide (p% = 2.81 and p% = 5.78%, respectively) diversity. Therefore, in contrast to terrestrial patterns, endemic and isolated populations of widespread angelfishes do not have low genetic diversity, rather their haplotype and nucleotide diversities were among the highest reported for marine fishes. High genetic diversity should reduce extinction risk in these species as it could provide the evolutionary potential to adapt to the rapidly changing environmental conditions forecast for coral reefs.

When we assume that contemporary management actions will be effective against the global rise of emerging alien species, we can develop management complacency, which leads to potentially disastrous outcomes for native biodiversity. Here, we propose the use of the probability of detection as a metric to assess the feasibility of management actions for alien species. We explore how detectability can influence the management of alien reptiles, a group of emergent alien vertebrates globally. We use a Rapid Biological Assessment method (time-limited transects) to estimate the probability of detection for alien reptiles present on Christmas Island (Australia). Across the five species studied, we found low probabilities of detection and poor explanatory capacity of the individual covariates included in our models. These findings indicate that management options to deal with alien reptiles are limited due to the potential high cost and low efficacy associated with low probabilities of detection. Strict preventive strategies, firmly espousing the principles of adaptiveness and precautionary policies, combined with early detection and biosecurity response activities are needed to address the emergence of alien reptiles. Our research was focussed on alien reptiles on islands, but the rise of new pools of alien species from all taxonomic realms across the world suggests that our conclusions may be applicable more generally. Further research is called for to explore the applicability of our conclusions and recommendations to other taxonomic groups and regions of the world.

Phosphorus (P) availability is limited in tropical acid soil due to fixation of soluble inorganic P by aluminium (Al) and iron (Fe). Liming is one of the common ways to overcome this problem. However, this practice is not economical. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of laboratory incubation period and different rates of rice straw compost on the soil P availability. During the incubation study, Christmas Island rock phosphate (CIRP) fertilizer was amended with different rates of rice straw compost (5, 10, 15, and 20 t ha−1). Treatments were incubated in the laboratory for 30, 60, and 90 days. Application of rice straw compost with CIRP significantly increased soil available P at 30, 60, and 90 days of incubation, respectively. This implies rice straw compost plays an important role on soil P availability by decreasing the P adsorption due to the competing adsorption sites by organic anion and dissolving the mineral associated P by low-molecular-weight organic acids. Besides, rice straw compost also increased the soil pH, and, at the same time, reduced exchangeable acidity, exchangeable Al and Fe. As the soil pH increased, the compost effectively fixed the Al and Fe in the soil instead of P, thus increasing the P availability in the soil. However, there was no significant increase/loss of available P when the incubation time increases under treatments with rice straw compost. This implies the effectiveness of rice straw compost in minimizing the loss of P due to P fixation in soil and slow microbially mediated mineralization of soil organic P to inorganic P as incubation time increases. The findings suggest that the application of rice straw compost altered soil chemical properties in a way that enhanced the availability of P in the Rengam acidic soil.

Seabirds endemic to remote oceanic islands face several unique threats to their population viability. Christmas Island is a small oceanic island with remarkable seabird biodiversity, including two endangered endemics: Christmas Island frigatebirds ( Fregata andrewsi ) and Abbott’s boobies ( Papasula abbotti ). Christmas Island seabirds are currently threatened by habitat destruction at breeding sites due to phosphate mining and by the adverse effects of the invasive yellow crazy ant ( Anoplolepis gracilipes ); however, conservation initiatives are limited by a paucity of genetic data on the breeding seabirds. To address this shortcoming, we collected genetic samples from five breeding seabird species, including the two endemics. We surveyed mitochondrial and nuclear genetic diversity, estimated effective population sizes, and tested whether species had undergone recent or long-term effective population size decline. Effective population sizes for Christmas Island frigatebirds and Abbott’s boobies were both low (approximately 5,000 and 2,100 individuals, respectively). Moreover, four out of the five species appeared to have undergone long-term population decline, suggesting that mitigation of the threats to population viability of Christmas Island seabirds is critical. We also detected cryptic population genetic structure within Abbott’s booby, perhaps due to in situ divergence on Christmas Island or due to the influx of individuals from an extirpated colony. Within-island differentiation may be common among endemic seabird species due to high levels of natal philopatry, and we suggest that careful consideration of population genetic structure on small geographic scales is crucial when designing conservation initiatives.

Tropical rainfall patterns control the subsistence lifestyle of more than one billion people. Seasonal changes in these rainfall patterns are associated with changes in the position of the intertropical convergence zone, which is characterized by deep convection causing heavy rainfall near 10 ∘  N in boreal summer and 3 ∘  N in boreal winter. Dynamic controls on the position of the intertropical convergence zone are debated, but palaeoclimatic evidence from continental Asia, Africa and the Americas suggests that it has shifted substantially during the past millennium, reaching its southernmost position some time during the Little Ice Age ( AD  1400–1850). However, without records from the meteorological core of the intertropical convergence zone in the Pacific Ocean, quantitative constraints on its position are lacking. Here we report microbiological, molecular and hydrogen isotopic evidence from lake sediments in the Northern Line Islands, Galápagos and Palau indicating that the Pacific intertropical convergence zone was south of its modern position for most of the past millennium, by as much as 500 km during the Little Ice Age. A colder Northern Hemisphere at that time, possibly resulting from lower solar irradiance, may have driven the intertropical convergence zone south. We conclude that small changes in Earth’s radiation budget may profoundly affect tropical rainfall. Seasonal changes in tropical rainfall patterns are associated with changes in the position of the intertropical convergence zone. Microbiological, molecular and hydrogen isotopic evidence from island lake sediments shows that the Pacific intertropical convergence zone was south of its modern position by as much as 500 km during the Little Ice Age.

\"Incorporating recent advances in biogeographic and phylogenetic research, this book provides a comprehensive introduction to the palm family Arecaceae, with reviews of botanical history, biogeography, phylogeny, ecology and conservation. Thorough descriptions of genera and species include notes on ecology and typification, and keys and distribution maps assist with field recognition. Colour photographs of habit, leaf, flowers, fruit and unique diagnostic characters also feature for each species\"--NHBS Environment Bookstore.