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Water-saver and water-spender strategies are successful adaptations allowing plants to cope with the limitations of hot desert habitats. We investigated whether the efficacy of the cuticular transpiration barrier and its susceptibility to high temperatures are ecophysiological traits differentially developed in the water-spender Citrullus colocynthis and the water-saver Phoenix dactylifera. Minimum leaf conductance (g min) at 25 °C was six times lower in P. dactylifera (1.1×10–5 m s–1) than in C. colocynthis (6.9×10–5 m s–1). Additionally, g min in the range 25–50 °C did not change in P. dactylifera but increased by a factor of 3.2 in C. colocynthis. Arrhenius formalism applied to the C. colocynthis g min led to a biphasic graph with a steep increase at temperatures ≥35 °C, whereas for P. dactylifera the graph was linear over all temperatures. Leaf cuticular wax coverage amounted to 4.2±0.4 μg cm–2 for C. colocynthis and 29.4±4.2 μg cm–2 for P. dactylifera. In both species, waxes were mainly composed of very-long-chain aliphatics. Midpoints of the wax melting ranges of P. dactylifera and C. colocynthis were 80 °C and 73 °C, respectively. We conclude that in P. dactylifera a particular wax and cutin chemistry prevents the rise of g min at elevated temperatures.

Main conclusionThe chromosome-level genome assembly of Citrullus colocynthis reveals its genetic potential for enhancing drought tolerance, paving the way for innovative crop improvement strategies.This study presents the first comprehensive genome assembly and annotation of Citrullus colocynthis, a drought-tolerant wild close relative of cultivated watermelon, highlighting its potential for enhancing agricultural resilience to climate change. The study achieved a chromosome-level assembly using advanced sequencing technologies, including PacBio HiFi and Hi-C, revealing a genome size of approximately 366 Mb with low heterozygosity and substantial repetitive content. Our analysis identified 23,327 gene models, that could encode stress response mechanisms for species’ adaptation to arid environments. Comparative genomics with closely related species illuminated the evolutionary dynamics within the Cucurbitaceae family. In addition, resequencing of 27 accessions from the United Arab Emirates (UAE) identified genetic diversity, suggesting a foundation for future breeding programs. This genomic resource opens new avenues for the de novo domestication of C. colocynthis, offering a blueprint for developing crops with enhanced drought tolerance, disease resistance, and nutritional profiles, crucial for sustaining future food security in the face of escalating climate challenges.

The growing demand for natural antioxidants has spurred interest in underutilized plant sources such as Citrullus colocynthis seeds, which are rich in bioactive compounds like phenolics and flavonoids. This study successfully optimized the extraction of these valuable antioxidants using the Soxhlet method with ethanol solvent and Response Surface Methodology (RSM) to overcome inefficiencies in traditional protocols. A Box-Behnken design investigated the effects of three critical variables: ethanol concentration (50–90% v/v), temperature (40–70 °C), and solid-to-solvent ratio (1:10–1:30 g/mL). The models revealed that ethanol concentration and temperature significantly influenced the extraction yield, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and antioxidant activities (DPPH and FRAP). These properties were quantified using the Folin-Ciocalteu assay for TPC, a colorimetric method for TFC, and the DPPH radical scavenging assay and FRAP (Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power) assay for antioxidant capacity. The optimal extraction conditions for maximizing antioxidant activity were precisely determined as 76.31% ethanol (v/v), 55.00 °C, and a 49.19 mL/g liquid-to-solid ratio. Under these optimal parameters, the extract yielded a maximum TPC of 9.94 mg CAE/g (Catechin Equivalent per gram dry matter), TFC of 5.42 mg CAE/g, and strong antioxidant values of 10.52 mg AAE/g (DPPH) and 6.54 mg AAE/g (FRAP). Strong correlations ( r  > 0.85) between TPC and antioxidant activities confirmed that phenolic compounds were the primary drivers of the extract’s efficacy. The strong correlations observed between TPC and antioxidant activity ( r  > 0.85) substantiate that phenolic compounds are the primary drivers of the extract’s efficacy. In conclusion, this research provides a validated, optimized protocol, establishing Citrullus colocynthis seeds as an efficiently extractable source of potent natural antioxidants.

Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad. (Cucurbitaceae) is widely distributed in the desert areas of the world. The fruit bodies of C. colocynthis are recognized for their wide range of nutraceutical potential, as well as medicinal and pharmaceutical uses. The plant has been reported for various uses, such as asthma, bronchitis, cancer, colic, common cold, cough, diabetes, dysentery, and jaundice. The fruit has been extensively studied for its biological activities, which include insecticide, antitumor, and antidiabetic effects. Numerous bioactive compounds have been reported in its fruit bodies, such as essential oils, fatty acids, glycosides, alkaloids, and flavonoids. Of these, flavonoids or caffeic acid derivatives are the constituents associated with the inhibition of fungal or bacterial growth, whereas eudesmane sesquiterpenes or sesquiterpene lactones are most active against insects, mites, and nematodes. In this review, the scientific evidence for the biological activity of C. colocynthis against insecticide, cytotoxic, and antidiabetic effects is summarized.

Plant extracts contain many active compounds, which are tremendously fruitful for plant defence against several insect pests. The prime objectives of the present study were to calculate the extraction yield and to evaluate the leaf extracts of Citrullus colocynthis (L.), Cannabis indica (L.) and Artemisia argyi (L.) against Brevicoryne brassicae and to conduct biochemical analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The results suggested that when using ethanol, C. colocynthis produced a high dry yield (12.45%), followed by that of C. indica and A. argyi , which were 12.37% and 10.95%, respectively. The toxicity results showed that A. argyi was toxic to B. brassicae with an LC 50 of 3.91 mg mL −1 , followed by the toxicity of C. colocynthis and C. indica , exhibiting LC 50 values of 6.26 and 10.04 mg mL −1 , respectively, which were obtained via a residual assay; with a contact assay, the LC 50 values of C. colocynthis , C. indica and A. argyi were 0.22 mg mL −1 , 1.96 and 2.87 mg mL −1 , respectively. The interaction of plant extracts, concentration and time revealed that the maximum mortality based on a concentration of 20 mg L −1 was 55.50%, the time-based mortality was 55% at 72 h of exposure, and the treatment-based mortality was 44.13% for A. argyi via the residual assay. On the other hand, the maximum concentration-based mortality was 74.44% at 20 mg mL −1 , the time-based mortality was 66.38% after 72 h of exposure, and 57.30% treatment-based mortality was afforded by A. argyi via the contact assay. The biochemical analysis presented ten constituents in both the A. argyi and C. colocynthis extracts and twenty in that of C. indica , corresponding to 99.80%, 99.99% and 97% of the total extracts, respectively. Moreover, the detected caryophylleneonides (sesquiterpenes), α-bisabolol and dronabinol (Δ 9 -THC) from C. indica and erucylamide and octasiloxane hexamethyl from C. colocynthis exhibited insecticidal properties, which might be responsible for aphid mortality. However, A. argyi was evaluated for the first time against B. brassicae . It was concluded that all the plant extracts possessed significant insecticidal properties and could be introduced as botanical insecticides after field evaluations.

Engineered nanoparticles that have distinctive targeted characteristics with high potency are modernistic technological innovations. In the modern era of research, nanotechnology has assumed critical importance due to its vast applications in all fields of science. Biologically synthesized nanoparticles using plants are an alternative to conventional methods. In the present study, Citrullus colocynthis (bitter apple) was used for the synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). UV-Vis’s spectroscopy, XRD, SEM and FTIR were performed to confirm the formation of AuNPs. UV-Vis’s spectra showed a characteristic peak at the range of 531.5–541.5 nm. XRD peaks at 2 θ = 38°, 44°, 64° and 77°, corresponding to 111, 200, 220 and 311 planes, confirmed the crystalline nature of AuNPs. Spherical AuNPs ranged mostly between 7 and 33 nm, and were measured using SEM. The FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of phytochemicals on the surface of AuNPs. Successful synthesis of AuNPs by seed extract of Citrullus colocynthis (bitter apple) as a capping and reducing agent represents the novelty of the present study.

Underutilized plant species provide sustainable sources for natural bioactive compounds. This study characterized Citrullus colocynthis seed oil (CCSO) from Adama, Ethiopia, extracted via an optimized Soxhlet protocol using ethanol (1:10 w/v, 60°C, 6 h). Physicochemical analysis confirmed that the oil meets FAO/WHO Codex standards for unrefined oils, featuring an acid value of 4 ± 0.51 mg KOH/g and a peroxide value of 7.44 ± 0.46 meq O 2 /kg, indicating high oxidative stability. GC–MS analysis identified linoleic acid (45.90%) and oleic acid (23.05%) as the primary fatty acids. Ethanol extracts demonstrated significant dose-dependent antioxidant capacity (90.95% DPPH scavenging at 12 mg/mL; FRAP of 4.79 ± 0.01 mmol Fe/g), which strongly correlated with high phenolic (225.64 ± 1.06 mg GAE/g) and flavonoid (126.87 ± 1.14 mg CAE/g) content (r = 0.95–0.98, p  < 0.05). Furthermore, antimicrobial assays revealed concentration-dependent activity, particularly against S. aureus (22 mm inhibition zone), with stronger efficacy against Gram-positive than Gram-negative strains. These findings highlight CCSO’s potential as a functional bioresource for food and pharmaceutical applications; however, further in vivo studies are required to validate its safety and industrial feasibility.

In this paper, a green microwave-assisted combustion approach to synthesize ZnO-NPs using zinc nitrate and Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad (fruit, seed and pulp) extracts as bio-fuels is reported. The structure, optical, and colloidal properties of the synthesized ZnO-NP samples were studied. Results illustrate that the morphology and particle size of the ZnO samples are different and depend on the bio-fuel. The XRD results revealed that hexagonal wurtzite ZnO-NPs with mean particle size of 27–85 nm were produced by different bio-fuels. The optical band gap was increased from 3.25 to 3.40 eV with the decreasing of particle size. FTIR results showed some differences in the surface structures of the as-synthesized ZnO-NP samples. This led to differences in the zeta potential, hydrodynamic size, and more significantly, antioxidant activity through scavenging of 1, 1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radicals. In in vitro cytotoxicity studies on 3T3 cells, a dose dependent toxicity with non-toxic effect of concentration below 0.26 mg/mL was shown for ZnO-NP samples. Furthermore, the as-synthesized ZnO-NPs inhibited the growth of medically significant pathogenic gram-positive (Bacillus subtilis and Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aurous) and gram-negative (Peseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli) bacteria. This study provides a simple, green and efficient approach to produce ZnO nanoparticles for various applications.

In recent years, academic and industrial research has focused on using agro-waste for energy and new material production to promote sustainable development and lessen environmental issues. In this study, new nanocomposites based on polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-Starch using two affordable agricultural wastes, Citrus limon peels (LP) and Citrullus colocynthis (Cc) shells and seeds powders with different concentrations (2, 5, 10, and 15 wt%) as bio-fillers were prepared. The nanocomposites were characterized by Dielectric Spectroscopy, Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and water swelling ratio. The antimicrobial properties of the nanocomposites against  Escherichia coli , Staphylococcus aureus , and Candida albicans were examined to investigate the possibility of using such composites in biomedical applications. Additionally, the biocompatibility of the composites on human normal fibroblast cell lines (HSF) was tested using MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5 diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assay. The results demonstrate that the filler type and concentration strongly affect the film's properties. The permittivity ε′, dielectric loss ε″ and conductivity σ dc increased by increasing filler content but still in the insulators range that recommend such composites to be used in the insulation purposes. Both bio fillers control the water uptake, and the samples filled with LP were more water resistant. The polyvinyl alcohol/starch incorporated with 5 wt% LP and Cc have antimicrobial effects against all the tested microorganisms. Increasing the filler content has a negative impact on cell viability.

Glutaraldehyde (GLU) is mainly used in medicine by healthcare workers during infection control as a chemical disinfectant. It has been linked to numerous health hazards that range from asthma to irritation of the eye to contact dermatitis. Citrullus colocynthis (C.C.) is utilized as a supplement to combat a range of health-related problems. This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of locally applied Citrullus colocynthis extract and Citrullus colocynthis loaded with ZnONPs against dermatitis caused by the disinfectant glutaraldehyde (2%).The female mice were divided into five groups (G1, G2, G3, G4, and G5). Group 1 was used as a control. The other 4 groups (2,3,4,and 5) were sprayed with 2% GLU (2 mg/kg body weight), and the other groups (3,4,and 5) were subjected to local application of natural products ( Citrullus colocynthis extract cream, ZnONP cream, and Citrullus colocynthis loaded on ZnONP cream), respectively. Each experimental animal was followed for 5 days per week for 30 days.Our findings revealed that GLU-induced dermatitis via the upregulation of TNF-α, IL-1b, NFkb 1, and ptgs2 mRNA expression and the downregulation of TGFB1 mRNA expression caused oxidative stress and altered the biochemical markers and histological appearance. However, these effects were improved by the ZnONPs , C.C. extract, and C.C.-ZnONPs .Local application of Citrullus colocynthis ZnONPs and ZnONPs had preventive effects against GLU -induced dermatitis through the suppression of oxidative stress and inflammatory markers and the enhancement of antioxidants.