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This review evaluates the clinical utility of tools for systematic behavioral observation in different settings for children and adolescents with ADHD. A comprehensive search yielded 135 relevant results since 1990. Observations from naturalistic settings were grouped into observations of classroom behavior (n = 58) and of social interactions (n = 25). Laboratory observations were subdivided into four contexts: independent play (n = 9), test session (n = 27), parent interaction (n = 11), and peer interaction (n = 5). Clinically relevant aspects of reliability and validity of employed instruments are reviewed. The results confirm the usefulness of systematic observations. However, no procedure can be recommended as a stand-alone diagnostic method. Psychometric properties are often unsatisfactory, which reduces the validity of observational methods, particularly for measuring treatment outcome. Further efforts are needed to improve the specificity of observational methods with regard to the discrimination of comorbidities and other disorders.

Latent profile analysis was used to identify different categories of students having different 'profiles' using self-reported classroom behaviour. Four categories of students with unique classroom behaviour profiles were identified among secondary school students in Oslo, Norway (n = 1570). Analyses examined how classroom behaviour categories are related to gender and school performance and whether a dual understanding of gender in school is helpful when trying to explain achievement differences as supposed to classroom behaviour categories. Analyses showed that gender was a better predictor of school achievement than classroom behaviour categories, even though the behaviour categories did contribute to the explanation of variance in students' academic marks above and beyond gender.

We examined how students’ intrinsic and extrinsic academic motivation and parental education uniquely and interactively related to teacher report of their self-regulated classroom behaviors (e.g., completion of tasks, keeping track of instructions). In a socioeconomically and racially/ethnically diverse sample of 317 students in third through fifth grade from the United States (34% Asian/Pacific Islander, 32% Hispanic/Latine, 21% White, 6% Black, 6% multiracial/other; 52% female), neither intrinsic motivation nor extrinsic academic motivation emerged as a significant predictor of children’s self-regulated classroom behaviors when controlling for parental education. However, we found a significant interactive effect between intrinsic motivation and parental education for three complementary measures of students’ self-regulated classroom behaviors (task orientation, working memory, flexible shifting). Simple slope analyses revealed that the positive association between intrinsic motivation and students’ self-regulated classroom behaviors was limited to children whose parents have lower levels of educational attainment (e.g., high school degree). This work has important practice and policy implications for increasing classroom practices that promote students’ academic intrinsic motivation, particularly for students whose parents have a high school degree or less. Simple interventions to improve teachers’ autonomy-supportive classroom practices and the content of verbal and written feedback to students could have cascading benefits for students’ intrinsic motivation and the self-regulated classroom behaviors that support learning. Highlights Examined how students’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and parental education uniquely and interactively relate to self-regulated classroom behaviors. Main effects of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and parental education were non-significant. Significant interaction between intrinsic motivation and parental education for children’s self-regulated classroom behaviors. Benefits of intrinsic motivation for self-regulation in the classroom were limited to students whose parents had a high school degree or less. Implications for increasing autonomy-supportive and feedback classroom practices to support intrinsic motivation.

We examined the associations between teachers' innovativeness, creative classroom behaviors, and teaching approach (constructivist and traditional) focusing in particular, on the mediating role of teachers' creative classroom behaviors in the relationship between their innovativeness and their teaching approach. We recruited 247 teachers (80.6% women, 19.4% men) working in early childhood centers and junior classes at elementary schools in Turkey to participate in the study. Participants reported on their innovativeness, creative classroom behaviors, and teaching approach. There was a positive association between creative classroom behaviors and use of the constructivist teaching approach, and a negative association between innovativeness and use of the traditional teaching approach. Mediation analysis results showed that there was an indirect effect from innovativeness to the constructivist teaching approach through creative classroom behaviors but this effect did not occur when a traditional teaching approach was used. Implications of our findings are discussed.

The present study investigated the role of the good character at school, specifically, its associations with satisfaction with school experiences, academic self-efficacy, positive classroom behavior, and objective school success (i.e., school grades). A sample of 247 students (mean age = 12 years) completed the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths for Youth, and measures on school-related satisfaction and academic self-efficacy. Teacher-ratings on positive classroom behavior, and grades from students’ school reports were also collected. Love of learning, zest, gratitude, perseverance, and curiosity were positively associated with school-related satisfaction. Hope, love of learning, perseverance, prudence, and others were positively associated with academic self-efficacy. Character strengths of the mind (e.g., self-regulation, perseverance, love of learning) were predictive for school success. The good character explained about one fourth of the variance in positive classroom behavior, with the specific strengths of perseverance, love of learning, and prudence showing the most substantial positive correlations. A model that postulated the predictive power of classroom-relevant character strengths on school success, mediated through positive classroom behavior, was supported. Character strengths (e.g., perspective, gratitude, hope, self-regulation, teamwork) distinguished between students who demonstrated improved vs. decreased grades during the school year. This study shows that the good character clearly matters in different contexts at school, and it seems to be relevant for subjective (e.g., satisfaction) as well as objective (e.g., grades) outcomes, and for positive behavior in classrooms.

Direct Behavior Rating (DBR) as a behavioral progress monitoring tool can be designed as longitudinal assessment with only short intervals between measurement points. The reliability of these instruments has been mostly evaluated in observational studies with small samples based on generalizability theory. However, for a standardized use in the pedagogical field, a larger and broader sample is required in order to assess measurement invariance between different participant groups and over time. Therefore, we constructed a DBR, the Questionnaire for Monitoring Behavior in Schools (QMBS) with multiple items to measure the occurrence of specific externalizing and internalizing student classroom behaviors on a Likert scale (1 = never to 7 = always). In a pilot study, two trained raters observed 16 primary education students and rated the student behavior over all items with a satisfactory reliability. In the main study, 108 regular primary school students, 97 regular secondary students, and 14 students in a clinical setting were rated daily over one week (five measurement points). Item response theory (IRT) analyses confirmed the technical adequacy of the instrument and latent growth models demonstrated the instrument’s stability over time. Further development of the instrument and study designs to implement DBRs is discussed.

Scholars call for more attention to how marginalization influences the development of low-income and racial/ethnic minority youth and emphasize the importance of youth's subjective perceptions of contexts. This study examines how beliefs about the fairness of the American system (system justification) in sixth grade influence trajectories of self-esteem and behavior among 257 early adolescents (average age 11.4) from a diverse, low-income, middle school in an urban southwestern city. System justification was associated with higher selfesteem, less delinquent behavior, and better classroom behavior in sixth grade but worse trajectories of these outcomes from sixth to eighth grade. These findings provide novel evidence that system-justifying beliefs undermine the well-being of marginalized youth and that early adolescence is a critical developmental period for this process.

Scholars typically view class socialization as an implicit process. This study instead shows how parents actively transmit class-based cultures to children and how these lessons reproduce inequalities. Through observations and interviews with children, parents, and teachers, I found that middle- and working-class parents expressed contrasting beliefs about appropriate classroom behavior, beliefs that shaped parents' cultural coaching efforts. These efforts led children to activate class-based problem-solving strategies, which generated stratified profits at school. By showing how these processes vary along social class lines, this study reveals a key source of children's class-based behaviors and highlights the efforts by which parents and children together reproduce inequalities.

Compared with other professions, teachers in P-12 schools appear to experience a higher level of emotional exhaustion (see review in Maslach et al. in Ann Rev Psychol 52(1):397, 2001 ; Schaufeli and Enzmann in The burnout companion to study and practice: a critical analysis, Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia, 1998 ). The purpose of this study is to examine teacher emotions within the context of teachers’ appraisals and the ways they regulate and cope with their emotions. The study explores teachers’ appraisals of disruptive classroom behavior situations and investigates the adaptive coping and emotion regulation strategies that ease teacher burnout. Data were collected from 492 teachers in the US Midwest and subjected to hypothesis testing using structural equation modeling. The model provides evidence supporting a pathway between teachers’ antecedent judgments and their experience of emotion, as well as providing evidence for how the consequent emotions contribute to teachers’ feelings of burnout. This study further validates the relationships between the appraisals teachers make about an incident and the correlative intensity of emotions. Several hypotheses are either supported or partially supported after testing alternate models. Discussion and implications regarding teacher emotion regulation and coping are provided.

Studies have shown that the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ)—which provides a measure of student approaches to learning—is a relatively weak predictor of academic achievement. The present study sought to explore whether students' achievement-related classroom behaviours, as observed by teachers, can be used as a mediator between student approaches to learning and academic achievement. The SPQ was administered to 1,608 students enrolled in six different diploma programmes offered by a polytechnic in Singapore. Data were analysed by means of correlation and path analysis. In line with existing studies, the results revealed that student approaches to learning was a weak predictor of academic achievement. However, achievement-related classroom behaviours turned out to be a significant mediator between student approaches to learning and academic achievement, effectively doubling the explained variance in academic achievement. Implications of these findings for using the SPQ are discussed.