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We review the interaction between coronavirus disease (COVID-19) and coccidioidomycosis, a respiratory infection caused by inhalation of Coccidioides fungal spores in dust. We examine risk for co-infection among construction and agricultural workers, incarcerated persons, Black and Latino populations, and persons living in high dust areas. We further identify common risk factors for co-infection, including older age, diabetes, immunosuppression, racial or ethnic minority status, and smoking. Because these diseases cause similar symptoms, the COVID-19 pandemic might exacerbate delays in coccidioidomycosis diagnosis, potentially interfering with prompt administration of antifungal therapies. Finally, we examine the clinical implications of co-infection, including severe COVID-19 and reactivation of latent coccidioidomycosis. Physicians should consider coccidioidomycosis as a possible diagnosis when treating patients with respiratory symptoms. Preventive measures such as wearing face masks might mitigate exposure to dust and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2, thereby protecting against both infections.

The simultaneous occurrence of HIV and syphilis poses an increasing difficulty due to the dynamic interplay between these two diseases. In recent years, the worldwide prevalence of co-infection between these two major global health issues has increased, partly because each infection can facilitate the acquisition of the other. We report a case of a 36-year-old diabetic male presenting to our clinic with scattered erythematous papules and plaques with a collarette of scale on the palms, soles, and genital area. The patient had geographic tongue with linear white plaques and fissuring. Virology showed positive herpes simplex virus IgG antibodies for types 1 and 2, and skin biopsy demonstrated vacuolar interface dermatitis, acanthosis, lymphocyte exocytosis, and thinning of the rete ridges. Additionally, the HIV serology test was positive. A diagnosis of secondary syphilis on top of HIV was established. Given the significant consequences that the co-infection of syphilis and HIV has on impacted individuals, it is crucial to allocate more time, effort, and resources to investigate this condition.

Priority effect theory, a foundational concept from community ecology, states that the order and timing of species arrival during species assembly can affect species composition. Although this theory has been applied to co-infecting parasite species, it has almost always been with a single time lag between co-infecting parasites. Thus, how the timing of parasite species arrival affects co-infections and disease remains poorly understood. To address this gap in the literature, we exposed postmetamorphic Cuban tree frogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis) to Ranavirus, the fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), a nematode Aplectana hamatospicula, or pairs of these parasites either simultaneously or sequentially at a range of time lags and quantified load of the secondary parasite and host growth, survival, and parasite tolerance. Prior exposure to Bd or A. hamatospicula significantly increased viral loads relative to hosts singly infected with Ranavirus, whereas A. hamatospicula loads in hosts were higher when coexposed to Bd than when coexposed to Ranavirus. There was a significant positive relationship between time since Ranavirus infection and Bd load, and prior exposure to A. hamatospicula decreased Bd loads compared to simultaneous co-infection with these parasites. Infections with Bd and Ranavirus either singly or in co-infections decreased host growth and survival. This research reveals that time lags between co-infections can affect parasite loads, in line with priority effects theory. As co-infections in the field are unlikely to be simultaneous, an understanding of when co-infections are impacted by time lags between parasite exposures may play a major role in controlling problematic co-infections.

During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, few cases of Nocar-dia spp. co-infection have been reported during or after a COVID-19 infection. Nocardia spp. are gram-positive aerobic actinomycetes that stain partially acid-fast, can infect immunocompromised patients, and may cause dis-seminated disease. We report the case of a 52-year-old immunocompromised man who had Nocardia pseudobrasiliensis pneumonia develop after a SARS-CoV-2 in-fection. We also summarize the literature for no-cardiosis and SARS-CoV-2 co-infections. Nocardia spp. infection should remain a part of the differential diagnosis for pneumonia in immunocompromised hosts, regardless of other co-infections. Sulfonamide/carbapenem combina-tions are used as empiric therapy for nocardiosis; species identification and susceptibility testing are required to se-lect the optimal treatment for each patient.

Pentatrichomonas hominis (P. hominis) is a large intestinal flagellated protozoan infecting humans. Little is known about the epidemiology of P.hominis in Egypt, its association with gastrointestinal symptoms and the co-infection with other parasites. Demographic and clinical data were collected from 180 school-aged children. Parasitological examination of fecal samples was done using direct wet mount, formalin ethyl-acetate, Kato-Katz and cultivation on Jones' medium to detect P. hominis and associated parasitic infection. The diagnosis of P. hominis was confirmed using Giemsa stain and scanning electron microscopy. The prevalence of P. hominis was 13.8% (25 out of 180 children). The prevalence of parasitic co-infection was significantly higher in P. hominis infected (84%, 21 participants) than in non-infected children (56%, 87 participants). The presence of abdominal pain and diarrhea in P. hominis infected children was higher than in non-infected children (84% and 32% vs. 76% and 18%), respectively. The difference was not statistically significant. This is the first report of P. hominis in Egypt. The significant association between P. hominis and other intestinal parasites need more investigations. Further studies are needed to understand the epidemiology and pathogenicity of P. hominis.Pentatrichomonas hominis (P. hominis) is a large intestinal flagellated protozoan infecting humans. Little is known about the epidemiology of P.hominis in Egypt, its association with gastrointestinal symptoms and the co-infection with other parasites. Demographic and clinical data were collected from 180 school-aged children. Parasitological examination of fecal samples was done using direct wet mount, formalin ethyl-acetate, Kato-Katz and cultivation on Jones' medium to detect P. hominis and associated parasitic infection. The diagnosis of P. hominis was confirmed using Giemsa stain and scanning electron microscopy. The prevalence of P. hominis was 13.8% (25 out of 180 children). The prevalence of parasitic co-infection was significantly higher in P. hominis infected (84%, 21 participants) than in non-infected children (56%, 87 participants). The presence of abdominal pain and diarrhea in P. hominis infected children was higher than in non-infected children (84% and 32% vs. 76% and 18%), respectively. The difference was not statistically significant. This is the first report of P. hominis in Egypt. The significant association between P. hominis and other intestinal parasites need more investigations. Further studies are needed to understand the epidemiology and pathogenicity of P. hominis.

Inferring interactions between co-occurring species is key to identify processes governing community assembly. Incorporating interspecific interactions in predictive models is common in ecology, yet most methods do not adequately account for indirect interactions (where an interaction between two species is masked by their shared interactions with a third) and assume interactions do not vary along environmental gradients. Markov random fields (MRF) overcome these limitations by estimating interspecific interactions, while controlling for indirect interactions, from multispecies occurrence data. We illustrate the utility of MRFs for ecologists interested in interspecific interactions, and demonstrate how covariates can be included (a set of models known as Conditional Random Fields, CRF) to infer how interactions vary along environmental gradients. We apply CRFs to two data sets of presence–absence data. The first illustrates how blood parasite (Haemoproteus, Plasmodium, and nematode microfilaria spp.) co-infection probabilities covary with relative abundance of their avian hosts. The second shows that co-occurrences between mosquito larvae and predatory insects vary along water temperature gradients. Other applications are discussed, including the potential to identify replacement or shifting impacts of highly connected species along climate or land-use gradients. We provide tools for building CRFs and plotting/interpreting results as an R package.

Based on the Caputo fractional-order derivative, this work investigates the dynamics of a newly developed co-infection model of Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and Hepatitis C virus (HCV). Due to their ability to take into account memory history and heritability, Caputo fractional-order derivatives are a natural candidate to study the HIV/HCV co-infection where these two properties are critical to study how infections spread. Furthermore, applying the Caputo fractional-derivative to the co-infection model helps forecast disease progression and offers optimal treatment strategies for understanding complex HIV/HCV interactions and co-evolutionary dynamics. Mathematical analysis of the co-infection model reveals two equilibria, one without sickness and the other with sickness. The next-generation matrix approach is employed to calculate the basic reproduction number for the cases of HIV and HCV only respectively, and the co-infection model of HIV and HCV, jointly that demonstrates the mutual influence of the two diseases. Using the reproduction numbers, the Lyapunov functional method, and the Routh-Hurwitz criterion, we establish the global dynamics of the model. To validate theoretical predictions, the fractional Adams Method (FAM), a popular numerical technique with a predictor-corrector structure, is utilized to compute the model’s numerical solutions. Finally, numerical simulations confirm the theoretical findings, elucidating the high degree of agreement between the theoretical analysis and the numerical results. Different from the existing literature using the L1 scheme, we incorporated a memory trace (MT) procedure in our paper that captures and amalgamates the historical dynamics of the system to evoke the memory effect in detail. One of the novel results obtained from this study is that the memory trace starts to come into existence once fractional power ζ starts to increase from 0 to 1 and completely disappears when ζ becomes 1. Upon increasing the fractional-order ζ from 0, the memory effect exploits a nonlinear proliferation starting from zero. This observed memory effect emphasizes the difference between the integer and non-integer order derivatives and thus claims the existence of memory effects of fractional-order derivatives. The findings of the paper will contribute to a better understanding of the disease outbreak, as well as aid in the development of future predictions and control strategies.

Serologic and molecular surveillance of serum collected from 152 suspected scrub typhus patients in Myanmar revealed Orientia tsutsugamushi of genotypic heterogeneity. In addition, potential co-infection with severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus was observed in 5 (3.3%) patients. Both scrub typhus and severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome are endemic in Myanmar.

Enteric viral co-infections, infections involving more than one virus, have been reported for a diverse group of etiological agents, including rotavirus, norovirus, astrovirus, adenovirus, and enteroviruses. These pathogens are causative agents for acute gastroenteritis and diarrheal disease in immunocompetent and immunocompromised individuals of all ages globally. Despite virus–virus co-infection events in the intestine being increasingly detected, little is known about their impact on disease outcomes or human health. Here, we review what is currently known about the clinical prevalence of virus–virus co-infections and how co-infections may influence vaccine responses. While experimental investigations into enteric virus co-infections have been limited, we highlight in vivo and in vitro models with exciting potential to investigate viral co-infections. Many features of virus–virus co-infection mechanisms in the intestine remain unclear, and further research will be critical.

We report co-infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and influenza A virus in a patient with pneumonia in China. The case highlights possible co-detection of known respiratory viruses. We noted low sensitivity of upper respiratory specimens for SARS-CoV-2, which could further complicate recognition of the full extent of disease.