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Over recent decades, the responsibility for the past actions of the European colonial powers in relation to their former colonies has been subject to a lively debate. In this book, the question of the responsibility under international law of former colonial States is addressed. Such a legal responsibility would presuppose the violation of the international law that was applicable at the time of colonization. In the ‘Scramble for Africa’ during the Age of New Imperialism (1870-1914), European States and non-State actors mainly used cession and protectorate treaties to acquire territorial sovereignty (imperium) and property rights over land (dominium). The question is raised whether Europeans did or did not on a systematic scale breach these treaties in the context of the acquisition of territory and the expansion of empire, mainly through extending sovereignty rights and, subsequently, intervening in the internal affairs of African political entities.

\"This edited collection offers a broad reinterpretation of the origins of Canada. Drawing on cutting-edge research in a number of fields, Violence, Order, and Unrest explores the development of British North America from the mid-eighteenth century through the aftermath of Confederation. The chapters cover an ambitious range of topics, from Indigenous culture to municipal politics, public executions to runaway slave advertisements. Cumulatively, this book examines the diversity of Indigenous and colonial experiences across northern North America and provides fresh perspectives on the crucial roles of violence and unrest in attempts to establish British authority in Indigenous territories. Drawing on specific case studies of law and state formation in English and French Canada, Violence, Order, and Unrest considers patterns of settler colonialism across the century before Confederation. The result is a collection that brings together innovative research in different fields to reconsider the ideology, governance, and political culture that underpinned British North America. In the aftermath of Canada 150, Violence, Order, and Unrest offers a timely contribution to current debates over the nature of Canadian culture and history. It demonstrates that we cannot understand Canada today without considering its origins as a colonial project.\"-- Provided by publisher.

Settlers feature in many protracted territorial disputes and ethnic conflicts around the world. Explaining the dynamics of the politics of settlers in contested territories in several contemporary cases, this book illuminates how settler-related conflicts emerge, evolve, and are significantly more difficult to resolve than other disputes. Written by country experts, chapters consider Israel and the West Bank, Arab settlers in Kirkuk, Moroccan settlers in Western Sahara, settlers from Fascist Italy in North Africa, Turkish settlers in Cyprus, Indonesian settlers in East Timor, and Sinhalese settlers in Sri Lanka. Addressing four common topics—right-sizing the state, mobilization and violence, the framing process, and legal principles versus pragmatism—the cases taken together raise interrelated questions about the role of settlers in conflicts in contested territory. Then looking beyond the similar characteristics, these cases also illuminate key differences in levels of settler mobilization and the impact these differences can have on peace processes to help explain different outcomes of settler-related conflicts. Finally, cases investigate the causes of settler mobilization and identify relevant conflict resolution mechanisms.

These transfers of sovereignty resulted in extensive, unforeseen movements of citizens and subjects to their former countries. The phenomenon of postcolonial migration affected not only European nations, but also the United States, Japan and post-Soviet Russia. The political and societal reactions to the unexpected and often unwelcome migrants was significant to postcolonial migrants' identity politics and how these influenced metropolitan debates about citizenship, national identity and colonial history. The contributors explore the historical background and contemporary significance of these migrations and discuss the ethnic and class composition and the patterns of integration of the migrant population.

Carbapenem-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae (CRKP) has become a threat to public health, most notably as a superbug causing nosocomial infections. Patients in the intensive care unit (ICU) are at increased risk of hospital-acquired K pneumoniae infection, especially CRKP. This study was conducted to investigate the frequency of gastrointestinal and nasopharyngeal K pneumoniae colonization and its contribution to infections in ICU patients. A 3-month prospective cohort study was performed in which 243 ICU patients were screened for intestinal and nasopharyngeal carriage of K pneumoniae at admission and once per week thereafter. The colonization and clinical infection isolates were analyzed by antimicrobial susceptibility testing to identify CRKP and were characterized by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and whole-genome sequencing combined with epidemiological data to investigate the resistance mechanisms and assess the possible transmitted infection. Twenty-eight percent (68 of 243) of patients tested positive for carriage of K pneumoniae immediately upon admission to ICU, 54% (37 of 68) of which were nonduplicate CRKP isolates. Patients with carbapenem-susceptible K pneumoniae (CSKP) colonization at admission were more likely to acquire CRKP colonization during the ICU stay compared with patients without K pneumoniae colonization at admission. The incidence of subsequent CRKP infection in the baseline CSKP (32.3%, 10 of 31) and CRKP (45.9%, 17 of 37) carrier group was significantly higher than that of the baseline non-KP carrier group (8.6%, 15 of 175). The risk factors associated with acquired CRKP colonization during the ICU stay among negative CRKP colonization at admission included previous exposure to carbapenem, tigecycline or β-lactam/β-lactamases inhibitor, and invasive processes or surgical operations. Sixty-four percent (27 of 42) of patients with K pneumoniae infection were colonized by clonally related K pneumoniae strains according to enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus sequence-polymerase chain reaction analysis. ST11 (72%, 53 of 74) was the most predominant MLST type of clonally related CRKP isolate colonizing these patients, followed by ST15 (26%, 19 of 74). The colonization of K pneumoniae may increase the incidence of corresponding K pneumoniae infection in critically ill patients in the ICU. High prevalence of ST11 CRKP (due to blaKPC-2) carriage and infection in ICU was observed.

The mcr-1 gene confers transferable colistin resistance. mcr-1-positive Enterobacteriaceae (MCRPE) have attracted substantial medical, media, and political attention; however, so far studies have not addressed their clinical impact. Herein, we report the prevalence of MCRPE in human infections and carriage, clinical associations of mcr-1-positive Escherichia coli (MCRPEC) infection, and risk factors for MCRPEC carriage. We undertook this study at two hospitals in Zhejiang and Guangdong, China. We did a retrospective cross-sectional assessment of prevalence of MCRPE infection from isolates of Gram-negative bacteria collected at the hospitals from 2007 to 2015 (prevalence study). We did a retrospective case-control study of risk factors for infection and mortality after infection, using all MCRPEC from infection isolates and a random sample of mcr-1-negative E coli infections from the retrospective collection between 2012 and 2015 (infection study). We also did a prospective case-control study to assess risk factors for carriage of MCRPEC in rectal swabs from inpatients with MCRPEC and mcr-1 negative at the hospitals and collected between May and December, 2015, compared with mcr-1-negative isolates from rectal swabs of inpatients (colonisation study). Strains were analysed for antibiotic resistance, plasmid typing, and transfer analysis, and strain relatedness. We identified 21 621 non-duplicate isolates of Enterobacteriaceae, Acinetobacter spp, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa from 18 698 inpatients and 2923 healthy volunteers. Of 17 498 isolates associated with infection, mcr-1 was detected in 76 (1%) of 5332 E coli isolates, 13 (<1%) of 348 Klebsiella pneumoniae, one (<1%) of 890 Enterobacter cloacae, and one (1%) of 162 Enterobacter aerogenes. For the infection study, we included 76 mcr-1-positive clinical E coli isolates and 508 mcr-1-negative isolates. Overall, MCRPEC infection was associated with male sex (209 [41%] vs 47 [63%], adjusted p=0·011), immunosuppression (30 [6%] vs 11 [15%], adjusted p=0·011), and antibiotic use, particularly carbapenems (45 [9%] vs 18 [24%], adjusted p=0·002) and fluoroquinolones (95 [19%] vs 23 [30%], adjusted p=0·017), before hospital admission. For the colonisation study, we screened 2923 rectal swabs from healthy volunteers, of which 19 were MCRPEC, and 1200 rectal swabs from patients, of which 35 were MCRPEC. Antibiotic use before hospital admission (p<0·0001) was associated with MCRPEC carriage in 35 patients compared with 378 patients with mcr-1-negative E coli colonisation, whereas living next to a farm was associated with mcr-1-negative E coli colonisation (p=0·03, univariate test). mcr-1 could be transferred between bacteria at high frequencies (10−1 to 10−3), and plasmid types and MCRPEC multi-locus sequence types (MLSTs) were more variable in Guangdong than in Zhejiang and included the human pathogen ST131. MCRPEC also included 17 unreported ST clades. In 2017, colistin will be formally banned from animal feeds in China and switched to human therapy. Infection with MRCPEC is associated with sex, immunosuppression, and previous antibiotic exposure, while colonisation is also associated with antibiotic exposure. MLST and plasmid analysis shows that MCRPEC are diversely spread throughout China and pervasive in Chinese communities. National Key Basic Research Program of China, National Natural Science Foundation of China/Zhejiang, National Key Research and Development Program, and MRC, UK.

Fusobacterium nucleatum ( Fn ), a bacterium present in the human oral cavity and rarely found in the lower gastrointestinal tract of healthy individuals 1 , is enriched in human colorectal cancer (CRC) tumours 2 – 5 . High intratumoural Fn loads are associated with recurrence, metastases and poorer patient prognosis 5 – 8 . Here, to delineate Fn genetic factors facilitating tumour colonization, we generated closed genomes for 135 Fn strains; 80 oral strains from individuals without cancer and 55 unique cancer strains cultured from tumours from 51 patients with CRC. Pangenomic analyses identified 483 CRC-enriched genetic factors. Tumour-isolated strains predominantly belong to Fn subspecies animalis ( Fna ). However, genomic analyses reveal that Fna , considered a single subspecies, is instead composed of two distinct clades ( Fna C1 and Fna C2). Of these, only Fna C2 dominates the CRC tumour niche. Inter- Fna analyses identified 195 Fna C2-associated genetic factors consistent with increased metabolic potential and colonization of the gastrointestinal tract. In support of this, Fna C2-treated mice had an increased number of intestinal adenomas and altered metabolites. Microbiome analysis of human tumour tissue from 116 patients with CRC demonstrated Fna C2 enrichment. Comparison of 62 paired specimens showed that only Fna C2 is tumour enriched compared to normal adjacent tissue. This was further supported by metagenomic analysis of stool samples from 627 patients with CRC and 619 healthy individuals. Collectively, our results identify the Fna clade bifurcation, show that specifically Fna C2 drives the reported Fn enrichment in human CRC and reveal the genetic underpinnings of pathoadaptation of Fna C2 to the CRC niche. A study reveals that Fusobacterium nucleatum subspecies animalis  is bifurcated into two distinct clades, and shows that only one of these dominates the colorectal cancer niche, probably through increased colonization of the human gastrointestinal tract.

Candida auris is an emerging infectious agent with limited antimicrobial susceptibilities. An outbreak was identified in a neurosciences ICU in the United Kingdom and was linked to reusable temperature probes.