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Purpose The purpose of this paper is clearly illustrate this convergence and the prescriptive recommendations that such documents entail. There is a significant amount of research into the ethical consequences of artificial intelligence (AI). This is reflected by many outputs across academia, policy and the media. Many of these outputs aim to provide guidance to particular stakeholder groups. It has recently been shown that there is a large degree of convergence in terms of the principles upon which these guidance documents are based. Despite this convergence, it is not always clear how these principles are to be translated into practice. Design/methodology/approach In this paper, the authors move beyond the high-level ethical principles that are common across the AI ethics guidance literature and provide a description of the normative content that is covered by these principles. The outcome is a comprehensive compilation of normative requirements arising from existing guidance documents. This is not only required for a deeper theoretical understanding of AI ethics discussions but also for the creation of practical and implementable guidance for developers and users of AI. Findings In this paper, the authors therefore provide a detailed explanation of the normative implications of existing AI ethics guidelines but directed towards developers and organisational users of AI. The authors believe that the paper provides the most comprehensive account of ethical requirements in AI currently available, which is of interest not only to the research and policy communities engaged in the topic but also to the user communities that require guidance when developing or deploying AI systems. Originality/value The authors believe that they have managed to compile the most comprehensive document collecting existing guidance which can guide practical action but will hopefully also support the consolidation of the guidelines landscape. The authors’ findings should also be of academic interest and inspire philosophical research on the consistency and justification of the various normative statements that can be found in the literature.

This study was conducted to examine the determinants of diversification of livelihoods to investigate the degree of diversification of households’ livelihoods in Assosa wereda, Benshangul Gumuz Regional State, in western Ethiopia. A total of 320 sample rural households were selected by using systematic sampling technique from four kebeles. Both qualitative and quantitative data collected through a structured questionnaire, key informant interview, focus group discussions and observation. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistical tools, the multinomial logit regression model, and Simpson Diversification Index. The result of the study show, of the 14 determinants of diversification of livelihoods identified: level of education, dependency ratio, access to irrigation, and household urban linkage were significant predictors of diversification of livelihoods. Whereas household age and sex, road distance, credit access, and household media access were insignificant predictors of diversification of livelihoods. Meanwhile, land hold size, livestock holding size in Tropical Livestock Unit, extension contact, cooperative member and total household income couldn’t have any association with household diversification of livelihoods in real conditions on the ground. Ultimately, the Simpson Diversity Index result showed that there was no diversification rather than \"specialization\" in livelihood. The study therefore urges more diversification opportunities in poverty alleviation and development.

Rapid urbanisation in China has led to a substantial decrease in agricultural land. To address this unsustainable form of urban development, the Chinese government has implemented the ‘Linkage’ Policy (Zengjian Guagou), which requires any increase in new urban land by local governments to be compensated for with an equivalent amount of new arable land. This paper examines the institutional changes and the implications for China’s land production and development arising from this mechanism of transferring land development rights from the rural to the urban sectors. Using Chengdu as a case study, our research concludes that this institutional mechanism has conferred commodified and tradeable development rights on rural land, leading to the emergence and direct involvement of new players in village land consolidation, resettlement of affected villagers and, indirectly, in the supply of new urban land. Process efficiency has been improved with the local governments, developers and village collectives capitalising on their niches in village improvement projects. The conventional state-led model of land production is enriched with bottom-up market initiatives, and villagers have more choices to realise their land property rights under the dual land market. Land use efficiency has been enhanced by the reallocation of construction land potential. However, infringements of villagers’ interests and negative impacts on balanced regional development under this policy were also found. 中国城市化的快速发展导致了农业用地的大幅减少。为了应对这种不可持续的城市发展形式，中国政府实施了“增减挂钩”政策，它要求地方政府在增加新城市土地的同时用同等数量的新耕地进行补偿。本文考察了这种土地发展权从农村向城市转移的机制，以及该制度变迁对中国土地生产和开发所产生的影响。以成都为例，我们的研究得出以下结论：这种制度设计赋予了农村土地商品化的、可交易的发展权，致使新的参与者出现并直接参与乡村土地整理、受影响村民的重新安置，并使他们间接参与到新的城市土地供应中。地方政府、开发商和村集体利用其各自在村庄发展项目中的优势提高了过程效率。传统的国家主导型土地生产模式因融合了自下而上的市场主动性而更为丰富，村民在二元土地市场下拥有了更多的选择以实现其土地产权。通过重新分配建设用地潜力，土地利用效率也得以提高。然而，在这一政策下，也出现了侵犯村民利益的现象和对区域均衡发展所产生的负面影响。

Area identification is an important prerequisite for land consolidation and ecological restoration (LCER); the realization of an optimized land use pattern is the key link of land use optimization. This study meets the dual requirements by establishing an identification framework for potential LCER areas. The framework is applied to the Yellow River Basin with the help of the multi-objective linear programming (MOLP) model and patch-generating land use simulating (PLUS) model, which effectively connects the “ideal” land use pattern with the “practical” LCER. The main conclusions are as follows. (1) The land development probability of the basin shows a significant spatial differentiation. Precipitation significantly restricts the development of agricultural and ecological lands, and the population is the key factor affecting the construction land. (2) The construction land sprawl, cropland loss, and grassland reduction would be effectively controlled in the optimized land use pattern, with the forestland and water increasing and the unused land area decreasing. (3) The framework of “land expansion analysis-land use optimization-potential area identification” is established and used to identify LCER areas, including four conversion areas of cropland development, cropland retirement, ecological reconstruction, ecological readjustment, and four non-conversion areas of cropland improvement, ecological conservation, and reserve resource area (I,II). Conversion areas require more LCER interventions than non-conversion areas. The spread of construction land could lead to severe losses of grassland and cropland under the natural development scenario. Land use optimization effectively protects cropland and ecological land, based on which identifying LCER areas and adapting differentiated measures contribute to implementing such conservation while improving the basin’s economic and ecological benefits. The identification framework provides flexible method guidance for determining the LCER areas, and offers a reference path for realizing optimized land use structure and pattern.

Since the 1980s, Chinese cities have witnessed significant growth, resulting in urban sprawl all over the country. Under the strict land quota system, local government has had to transform its approach of Greenfield development to land consolidation. Under the 'Increasing and Decreasing Balance' land use policy, the Shanghai government began to consolidate rural construction land in order to acquire extra quota for state land by transferring development rights from collective land to state land and by establishing a three-level land consolidation planning system. This paper firstly examines the expansion of non-agricultural land in Shanghai since 1990. It explains the policy arrangements of land consolidation from the perspective of property rights transfer between state and collective land. Taking Xinbang Township as an example, this paper examines the roles of various stakeholders in land consolidation, the municipalities, district and township governments, village collectives, local villagers and entrepreneurs, and analyses the impact land consolidation has upon them. The paper concludes with discussion and policy implications of future land consolidation.

This study develops and assesses the application of a livelihood vulnerability index (LVI), LVI-IPCC and livelihood effect index for the natural and agricultural resources in Northwestern Pakistan. By using structured questionnaire, primary data were collected from the targeted households in the study region. Data on socio-demographics, water security, health, social networks and climate variability were collected from the targeted respondents in this study area, and combined into indices. The IPCC framework was utilized that characterizes vulnerability into exposure, sensitivity and its adaptive capacity. Findings of our study showed that tehsil Shabqadar was more vulnerable among three studied tehsils particularly in natural disasters, health, water and land holding status. Tehsil Tangi was the second high vulnerable tehsil followed by tehsil Charsadda relative to other LVI components with the exclusion of livelihood strategies and financial constraints. Findings of this study provide a better understanding of the social and behavioral trends as well as an integrated and holistic view of the agriculture, climate change and livelihoods process in assessing the vulnerability. The findings and this pragmatic approach will be helpful in intending specific strategies and policy effectiveness to lessen susceptibility of households to climatic variations.

The agriculture sector, particularly in developing countries, is the more victim of the impacts of climate change due to less adaptation. The low response to the adoption of climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices raises questions about the factors influencing adaptation determinants. Therefore, the present study is designed to explore the adoption of CSA practices and the intensity, assessing through its determinants, and estimating its benefits in terms of its impacts on crop yield and farm income. For this purpose, 420 farmers were interviewed across three agro-ecological zones of Punjab, Pakistan. The study employs multinomial logistic regression to examine the factors that determine the adoption of single to a full package of CSA practices. Further, it uses a two-stage least square estimation technique to control the endogeneity problem and to estimate its conditional impact on crop yield and farm income. The study reveals interesting findings and demonstrates that the adoption of single to a full package of CSA practices is mostly explained by the institutional factors, financial resources, size of land holding, and level of education attained by the farmers. Similarly, more affected farmers due to climatic shocks were more intended to adopt CSA practices. Findings confirm that farmers who adopted a full set of CSA practices gain higher yield 32% and 44% kg/ha, and higher farm income 45% and 48% US$ per ha than non-adopted farmers for cotton–wheat and rice–wheat crops, respectively. Further, the impact of adaptation also varies to the intensity of CSA practices adopted by the farmers. This study suggests effective institutional and policy implications for creating awareness and financial support to the farmers to accelerate the adoption of CSA practices. These measures can enhance the farmers’ adaptive capacity that is needed for the sustainable livelihood of rural masses and food production.

Unequal access to land, driven by decades of consolidation and concentration, is of increasing concern around the globe. This article analyzes growing farm consolidation and land concentration in the province of Saskatchewan, considered Canada’s agricultural powerhouse. Drawing on Land Titles data and Census of Agriculture statistics, we document trends associated with a changing farm structure such as increasingly large land holdings, growing ownership concentration, and the emergence of a class of mega-farms. The largest farms, many of which have roots in family enterprise, are becoming increasingly complex in their organizational form and in their relationships to farmland, rented and owned. Our qualitative analysis allows us to provide an ‘on the ground’ view of these trends, including the multiple social and environmental changes wrought by on-going consolidation. We argue that these trends are contributing to a homogenization, flattening, and emptying out of Saskatchewan rural landscapes. Furthermore, we document increasing competitive pressures and land market dynamics that will likely continue to exacerbate land inequality and impede the entry of new farmers. Our research underlines the importance of new, more sophisticated ways of conceptualizing the family farm and its evolution from ‘farm to firm’.

Climate change and variability has far reaching impacts on agriculture particularly in ecologically sensitive areas like the Himalayas. The present study attempts to understand the farmer’s perception and adaptation strategies to changing climate in Lidder watershed of Kashmir Himalayas, India. Based on a cross-sectional database of 266 farm operating families, the study adopts a bottom-up approach to investigate farmer’s perceptions of changes in climatic variables as well as various farm-level adaptation measures, determinants and barriers at the farm-household level. The results show that the majority of farmers have developed a perception of climate change and have engaged themselves in adaptive behaviour with regard to agricultural land use and planning. A weighted average index used to measure the most relevant adaptation strategies revealed that conversion of agricultural land to horticulture, improving irrigational facilities and water harvesting were the main adaptation methods implemented by farmers in the study area. Utilizing the logit regression model, the study confirmed that household characteristics such as land holding size, age of the farmer, years of schooling, farm experience and labour force highly influence household decisions to adapt to climate change. The study calls for policy intervention at the farm-household level to enhance the adaptive capacity of farmers in the region.

Since 2004, annual deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon has fallen nearly 80 percent, even as agricultural production in the region has increased. Understanding this land use transition requires a theorization of the relationships among environmental governance, agricultural intensification, and state building. Drawing on key informant interviews, municipal-level case studies, and an organizational ethnography of an international environmental organization, I argue that declines in deforestation engineered by new governance arrangements are part of a project of economic development and state building through environmental regulation. This project is implemented by a complex of government, nongovernmental, and corporate actors. I describe the emergence of this complex and the land sparing logic that animates it. Land sparing policy inverts previous logics of state territorialization and environmental conservation with the aim of shifting the Amazonian economy from an extensive mode of extraction to an intensive mode of production. Two municipal case studies follow variation in land sparing policy implementation. The cases identify determinants of land sparing policy effectiveness and collateral effects, including tendencies toward agro-industrial consolidation at the expense of smallholders.