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Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) is a severe respiratory disease of cattle, caused by Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides , and is included in the list of notifiable diseases of the World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). CBPP was successfully eradicated from the USA, Australia, Europe, and parts of southern Africa, primarily through the application of drastic stamping-out policies. However, the disease remains endemic in sub-Saharan Africa, where it continues to spread despite considerable control efforts, causing significant losses and posing a serious risk of antimicrobial resistance emergence. Recognised as a major cattle disease, CBPP is included in the DISCONTOOLS database, which aims “to identify the gaps in knowledge to speed up the development of new disease control tools and to reduce the burden of animal diseases”. This work presents the outcome of a comprehensive analysis by a group of experts, who reviewed existing knowledge on CBPP aetiology, host–pathogen interactions, epidemiology, impact, and control. Key knowledge and technical gaps were identified, along with critical needs to support improved disease control and eventual eradication. These include a better understanding of the disease’s distribution, incidence and impact; the mechanisms of transmission and persistence at the population level; the molecular basis of pathogenicity and protective immune responses; the development of affordable and reliable diagnostic tools, including pen-side tests; and the design of safer, more effective, and thermostable vaccines, including DIVA and multi-valent options. In addition, cost-effective intervention strategies combining multiple control measures, such as vaccination and the rational, regulated use of antibiotics, must be developed and validated, alongside surveillance for antimicrobial resistance in the field. Social, political, and financial factors contributing to the persistence and spread of the disease must also be addressed. Importantly, based on this analysis, a set of cost-effective actions and practical recommendations has been proposed to mitigate the most critical gaps. With adequate financial, scientific, and political commitment, the eradication of CBPP remains an achievable goal.

Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides (Mmm) is the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP). Lumpy skin disease (LSD) is a viral disease of cattle caused by lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV). LSD and CBPP are both transboundary diseases spreading in the same areas of Africa and Asia. A combination vaccine to control CBPP and LSD offers significant value to small-scale livestock keepers as a single administration. Access to a bivalent vaccine may improve vaccination rates for both pathogens. In the present study, we evaluated the LSDV/CBPP live combined vaccine by testing the generation of virus neutralizing antibodies, immunogenicity, and safety on target species. In-vitro assessment of the Mycoplasma effect on LSDV growth in cell culture was evaluated by infectious virus titration and qPCR during 3 serial passages, whereas in-vivo interference was assessed through the antibody response to vaccination. This combined Mmm/LSDV vaccine could be used to protect cattle against both diseases with a single vaccination in the endemic countries. There were no adverse reactions detected in this study and inoculated cattle produced high levels of specific antibodies starting from day 7 post-vaccination, suggesting that this combination vaccine is both safe and effective.

A serological survey to determine the prevalence of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) in Mali was carried out by using the competitive enzyme linked-immunosorbent test (c-ELISA) on 8007 serum samples systematically collected from 199 cattle herds collected throughout the whole country. Results showed a national prevalence of 18.11 % at the individual level and 85.93 % at the herd level. Significant variations in the individual prevalence were observed between regions of the country and ranged from 4.63 % in Tombouctou to 54.88 % in Kidal. At the herd level, although there were variations between regions, a high prevalence was constantly observed ranging from 60 to 100 %, hence confirming the endemic nature of the disease across the country. The CBPP risk varied also between regions and was very low in Tombouctou (odds ratio (OR) = 0.4) but very high in Kidal (OR = 9.8). Similarly, the risk seemed higher in the animals of the over 3-year age group (OR = 1.6) compared to the other age groups. It was also observed that there was a slightly higher risk (OR = 1.3) in the females than in the males. This study confirms the presence of CBPP across the country and should help to elaborate strategies for the effective control of the disease.

The control of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) remains constrained by institutional, financial and technical barriers in many livestock-keeping regions of sub-Saharan Africa, despite its detrimental impact on trade, pastoral livelihoods and food security. Therefore, livestock keepers are relying on suboptimal use of antimicrobials to manage CBPP outbreaks. We conducted an outbreak investigation to understand epidemiological and management practices in 95 herds with ongoing or recent cases of CBPP in five counties of Kenya. A wide range of antimicrobials including tetracycline, penicillin-streptomycin (pen & strep), tylosin, and diminazen were used in majority of herds (90/95; 94.7%), with half of these herds receiving sequential administration of two or more types of drugs to address failure of the first use. Only 33/95 (34.7%) of farmers reported to have vaccinated their animals and most of them vaccinated in response to outbreaks in their herds rather than the expected routine preventive program (28/33, 84.8%). The average case fatality rate (CFR) for CBPP was estimated at 36%, with only treatment with tylosin resulting in a significant reduction in mortalities due to CBPP ( p  = 0.035). Majority of livestock keepers (83.3%) continued to consume milk from their animals during and after the treatment period, without observing the stipulated withdrawal periods. Policy emphasis should shift toward prudent use of antimicrobials and preventive vaccination as the cornerstone of CBPP control, while using multifaceted One Health strategy that bridges veterinary, public health, and environmental sectors.

Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), a highly infectious and fatal disease of cattle present in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, is usually controlled by mass vaccinations. However, vaccination against CBPP is known to cause site reactions in a percentage of cattle especially in primary vaccinations. In Zambia, a record of site reactions was kept for seven consecutive years from 2005 to 2011 to establish the level of the problem. In some areas, after 3 years of consecutive vaccination campaigns, immunization could not be implemented for a period of 2 years because of logistical difficulties or owner resistance. Whereas in the three preceding years when animals were vaccinated annually, site reactions were in the range of 6.2 %; on resumption of vaccination in the herds that had not been immunized for 2 years, site reactions averaged 21.3 %. This data shows that the T1/44 vaccine may cause severe local reactions in cattle if there is any break in annual vaccinations. It is therefore important for authorities to ensure that the cattle at risk of contracting CBPP are regularly vaccinated to avoid discouraging farmers from presenting their animals.

We investigated the interactions of unopsonized and opsonized Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. mycoides ( Mmm ) with bovine macrophages in vitro . Mmm survived and proliferated extracellularly on bovine macrophage cell layers in the absence of Mmm -specific antisera. Bovine complement used at non-bactericidal concentrations did neither have opsonizing effect nor promoted intracellular survival, whereas Mmm -specific antisera substantially increased phagocytosis and Mmm killing. A phagocytosis-independent uptake of Mmm by macrophages occurred at a high multiplicity of infection, also found to induce the production of TNF, and both responses were unaffected by non-bactericidal doses of bovine complement. Bovine complement used at higher doses killed Mmm in cell-free cultures and completely abrogated TNF responses by macrophages. These results provide a framework to identify Mmm antigens involved in interactions with macrophages and targeted by potentially protective antibodies and point towards a pivotal role of complement in the control of inflammatory responses in contagious bovine pleuropneumonia.

From June to September 2023, we performed a cross-sectional study to estimate the seroprevalence of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia in the Huambo province of Angola; the study also characterized associated risk factors. We sampled 142 herds belonging to livestock farmers in four municipalities (Caála, Longonjo, Bailundo, and Mungo). A competitive ELISA approach was used to detect the presence of antibodies against Mycoplasma mycoides subspecies mycoides ( Mmm ) in 1647 cattle. Herd-level seropositivity was determined using a threshold that accounted for test measurement uncertainty in the laboratory. Data on herd characteristics were collected from livestock farmers using a questionnaire. We explored the relationship between 14 potential risk factors and herd seropositivity using logistic regression models. Overall, apparent herd-level seroprevalence was 55.6% (95% CI 46.9–63.1%). The likelihood that a herd was seropositive was related to the area where cattle had been purchased; it was significantly higher when animals came from the southern region of Huambo (odds ratio: 5.5; 95% CI 1.4–17.5). Although our study was limited by its sampling design (we lacked comprehensive information on the province’s farms), our findings suggest that Mmm infections may occur at significant levels in Huambo and highlight distribution patterns that could guide disease control strategies in livestock farming systems.

This research assesses the impact of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP) vaccination, treatment, and combined vaccination and treatment at the herd and population level in heterogeneous, stochastic, state‐transition models of CBPP transmission. Results from published trials with oxytetracycline or third‐generation macrolides (tulathromycin and gamithromycin) were used to inform parameters for antibiotic treatment. Societies have evolved and the levels of movement control responsible for the previous success of vaccination programs are no longer possible. Current vaccines, when applied in the absence of movement control, did not result in eradication. For hypothetical vaccines with 85%–95% efficacy and 3 years duration of immunity, more than 3 years of biannual vaccination would be required to reduce herd prevalence to near eradication levels. The results of treatment scenarios indicated that small‐scale, focused community‐based programs working through trained community members to systematically detect and treat suspect cases with oxytetracyclines or third‐generation macrolides can eliminate CBPP from defined endemic populations within a period of 6 months. Oxytetracylcines are effective, inexpensive, and widely available. The rapid clinical response to the third‐generation macrolides is an additional, direct incentive of interest to livestock owners and has the potential to entirely change the economics of CBPP control programs. Development and validation of effective, practical treatment protocols have the potential to reduce total antibiotic use over the current situation of widespread, haphazard use of antibiotics and enhance antibiotic stewardship. Combined programs covering regions that promote treatment of clinical cases and vaccination of the contact population at risk are of interest. Large scale treatment and vaccination approaches have the potential to eliminate infection in time frames of 2–3 years. In the future, pilot control programs based on public–private‐community partnerships should be implemented at the community level that addresses the technical strategy, the modern institutional and socioeconomic challenges, and new opportunities for control.

For the development of a competitive ELISA (cELISA) to detect serum antibodies against the Mycoplasma mycoides subsp. Mycoides ( Mmm ) (strain PG1), the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), all the proteins of this pathogen were analyzed. Then, a specific extracellular region of a transmembrane protein with the potential for diagnosis was identified. After that, a monoclonal antibody (Mab) named 3A8 was obtained using this extracellular region as an immunogen. Finally, a cELISA was established with the extracellular domain of this transmembrane protein as the coating antigen, Mab 3A8 as the competitive antibody, and HRP-labeled goat anti-mouse IgG as the enzyme-labeled antibody. This established method was used to detect the antibody dynamic regularity of goats which are artificially immunized Mmm and was also compared with a commercial ELISA kit. Further, the sera of 1011 different cattle from border provinces of China were monitored using a candidate Mab 3A8 cELISA. The detection results of known background sera used in this study indicate that a candidate diagnostic marker was successfully identified by analyzing all the coding proteins of Mmm in this research, and the cELISA established based on the Mab 3A8 against this protein can detect CBPP-positive serum with specificity and has no cross-reaction with other related epidemic disease-positive sera. In addition, we tested the sera collected from the border areas of China using the established ELISA, and no positive sample was detected. The research protocol of the CBPP cELISA established in this study is different from the traditional method, which can greatly reduce the investment of manpower and capital and save development time. We believe that this study’s protocol could serve as a reference for the development of detection methods for mycoplasma and other complex pathogens. Key points • A Mmm-specific diagnostic marker was obtained based on protein characteristics. • A cELISA was established for CBPP serum antibody detection. • The serological investigation was conducted for CBPP in the border areas of China.

•Deep sequencing and variant analysis used to assess genetic drift in live, attenuated T1 vaccines.•Drift in some commercial vaccine batches reveals deviations from standard production protocols.•Genome variant analysis proposed as a new tool for T1 vaccine batch quality compliance. Vaccination is the most cost-effective tool to control contagious bovine pleuropneumonia. The vaccines currently used in Africa are derived from a live strain called T1, which was attenuated by passage in embryonated eggs and broth culture. The number of passages is directly correlated to the degree of attenuation of the vaccinal strains and inversely correlated to their immunogenicity in cattle. Current quality control protocols applied to vaccine batches allow the assessment of identity, purity, and titers, but cannot assess the level of genetic drift form the parental vaccine strains. Deep sequencing was used to assess the genetic drift generated over controlled in vitro passages of the parental strain, as well as on commercial vaccine batches. Signatures of cloning procedures were detected in some batches, which imply a deviation from the standard production protocol. Deep sequencing is proposed as a new tool for the identity and stability control of T1 vaccines.