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The paradoxical effects of contextual interference (CI) assume that high CI practices hinder performances during the acquisition phase of learning, while providing more permanent enhancement during the retention phase. This meta-analysis evaluates the possible generalizability of the CI phenomenon in physical education (PE) and sports contexts, with regard to the acute and relatively permanent gains in performance outcomes. A total of 933 records from five electronic databases were screened using the PICOS criteria, of which 36 studies were selected. Outcomes evaluating the performance changes (Δ) from pre-post, post-retention, and pre-retention tests were included. Out of 183 overall pooled outcomes, Δ in only 37 performance outcomes (20%) agreed with the paradoxical CI effects on the acquisition or the relatively permanent gains. No statistically significant overall difference was detected for “Δ pre-post” between low (blocked) (28.9 ± 59.5%) and high (random/serial) (27.9 ± 52.8%) CI (effect size (ES) = 0.1, p = 0.35). An overall significant difference (p = 0.001) in favor of high CI practice was detected in “Δ post-retention.” However, this difference was not large enough (ES =  − 0.35) to produce an overall greater long-term gain following high (24.56 ± 4.4%), compared to low (21.9 ± 9.8%) CI (ES =  − 0.13, p = 0.18). Out of 10 tested variables, only the age significantly moderated both CI effects (p < 0.0001 for both Δ pre-post and Δ pre-retention) and the female proportion significantly moderated only the first CI effect (p = 0.009 for Δ pre-post). These findings found very limited evidence supporting the recommendation to employ high CI practices to gain a longer-term performance advantage, calling into question the generalization of the CI model to PE and sports practices. High-quality follow-up research evaluating alternative motor-learning models are therefore needed.

This critical review considers the epistemological and historical background of the theoretical construct of motor learning for a more differentiated understanding. More than simply reflecting critically on the models that are used to solve problems—whether they are applied in therapy, physical education, or training practice—this review seeks to respond constructively to the recent discussion caused by the replication crisis in life sciences. To this end, an in-depth review of contemporary motor learning approaches is provided, with a pragmatism-oriented clarification of the researcher’s intentions on fundamentals (what?), subjects (for whom?), time intervals (when?), and purpose (for what?). The complexity in which the processes of movement acquisition, learning, and refinement take place removes their predictable and linear character and therefore, from an applied point of view, invites a great deal of caution when trying to make generalization claims. Particularly when we attempt to understand and study these phenomena in unpredictable and dynamic contexts, it is recommended that scientists and practitioners seek to better understand the central role that the individual and their situatedness plays in the system. In this way, we will be closer to making a meaningful and authentic contribution to the advancement of knowledge, and not merely for the sake of renaming inventions.

The ability to use context to flexibly adjust our decision-making is vital for navigating a complex world. To do this, the brain must both use environmental features and behavioural outcomes to distinguish between different, often hidden contexts; and also learn how to use these inferred contexts to guide behaviour. However, how these two interacting processes can be performed simultaneously remains unclear. Within the brain it is thought that interaction between the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and hippocampus (HPC) supports contextual inference. We show that models using environmental features (similar to those proposed to be implemented in hippocampus) readily support context-specific behaviour, but struggle to differentiate ambiguous contexts during learning. In contrast, models using behavioural outcomes (similar to those proposed in PFC) can stably differentiate contexts during periods of learning, but struggle to guide context-specific behaviour. We show that supporting feature-based with outcome-based strategies during learning overcomes the limitations of both approaches, allowing for the formation of distinct contextual representations that support contextual inference. Moreover, agents using this joint approach reproduce both behavioural- and cellular-level phenomena associated with the interaction between PFC and HPC. Together, these results provide insight into how the brain uses contextual information to guide flexible behaviour.

Compared to blocked practice, interleaved practice of different tasks leads to superior long-term retention despite poorer initial acquisition performance. This phenomenon, the contextual interference effect, is well documented in various domains but it is not yet clear if it persists in the absence of explicit knowledge in terms of fine motor sequence learning. Additionally, while there is some evidence that interleaved practice leads to improved transfer of learning to similar actions, transfer of implicit motor sequence learning has not been explored. The present studies used a serial reaction time task where participants practiced three different eight-item sequences that were either interleaved or blocked on Day 1 (training) and Day 2 (testing). In Experiment 1 , the retention of the three training sequences was tested on Day 2 and in Experiment 2 , three novel sequences were performed on Day 2 to measure transfer. We assessed whether subjects were aware of the sequences to determine whether the benefit of interleaved practice extends to implicitly learned sequences. Even for participants who reported no awareness of the sequences, interleaving led to a benefit for both retention and transfer compared to participants who practiced blocked sequences. Those who trained with blocked sequences were left unprepared for interleaved sequences at test, while those who trained with interleaved sequences were unaffected by testing condition, revealing that learning resulting from blocked practice may be less flexible and more vulnerable to testing conditions. These results indicate that the benefit of interleaved practice extends to implicit motor sequence learning and transfer.

When a context change is detected during motor learning, motor memories—internal models for executing movements within some context—may be created or existing motor memories may be activated and modified. Assigning credit to plausible causes of errors can allow for fast retrieval and activation of a motor memory, or a combination of motor memories, when the presence of such causes is detected. Features of the movement-context intrinsic to the movement dynamics, such as posture of the end effector, are often effective cues for detecting context change whereas features extrinsic to the movement dynamics, such as the colour of an object being moved, are often not. These extrinsic cues are typically not relevant to the motor task at hand and can be safely ignored by the motor system. We conducted two experiments testing if extrinsic but movement-goal relevant object-shape cues during an object-transport task can act as viable contextual cues for error assignment to the object, and the creation of new, object-shape-associated motor memories. In the first experiment we find that despite the object-shape cues, errors are primarily attributed to the hand transporting the object. In a second experiment, we find participants can execute differing movements cued by the object shape in a dual adaptation task, but the extent of adaptation is small, suggesting that movement-goal relevant object-shape properties are poor but viable cues for creating context specific motor memories.

This study is a randomised controlled trial that aims to investigate the impact of different levels of contextual interference (blocked, increasing, and random) on basketball skill performance in male college students. A sample of 106 male college students, who were in good health and had no prior basketball experience, were randomly divided into three groups: blocked schedule (BS), increasing schedule (IS), and random schedule (RS). During a nine-week period, all groups received training in basketball skills, including shooting, dribbling, and passing. Each group adhered to a unique practice schedule. The assessment of skill performance included a pre-test, Post-test 1 (Skill acquisition test), Post-test 2 (Skill retention test), and Post-test 3 (Skill transfer test). The first three tests shared similar content and scoring criteria, while the skill transfer test presented novel challenges. The statistical significance level was defined as p

Motor sequence learning under high levels of contextual interference (CI) disrupts initial performance but supports delayed test and transfer performance when compared to learning under low CI. Integrating findings from early behavioral work and more recent experimental efforts that incorporated neurophysiologic measures led to a novel account of the role of CI during motor sequence learning. This account focuses on important contributions from two neural regions—the dorsal premotor area and the SMA complex—that are recruited earlier and more extensively during the planning of a motor sequence in a high CI context. It is proposed that activation of these regions is critical to early adaptation of sequence structure amenable to long-term storage. Moreover, greater CI enhances access to newly acquired motor sequence knowledge through (1) the emergence of temporary functional connectivity between neural sites previously described as crucial to successful long-term performance of sequential behaviors, and (2) heightened excitability of M1—a key constituent of the temporary coupled neural circuits, and the primary candidate for storage of motor memory.

A large body of research has shown superior learning rates in variable practice compared to repetitive practice. More specifically, this has been demonstrated in the contextual interference (CI) and in the differential learning (DL) approach that are both representatives of variable practice. Behavioral studies have indicate different learning processes in CI and DL. Aim of the present study was to examine immediate post-task effects on electroencephalographic (EEG) brain activation patterns after CI and DL protocols that reveal underlying neural processes at the early stage of motor consolidation. Additionally, we tested two DL protocols (gradual DL, chaotic DL) to examine the effect of different degrees of stochastic fluctuations within the DL approach with a low degree of fluctuations in gradual DL and a high degree of fluctuations in chaotic DL. Twenty-two subjects performed badminton serves according to three variable practice protocols (CI, gradual DL, chaotic DL), and a repetitive learning protocol in a within-subjects design. Spontaneous EEG activity was measured before, and immediately after each 20-min practice session from 19 electrodes. Results showed distinguishable neural processes after CI, DL, and repetitive learning. Increases in EEG theta and alpha power were obtained in somatosensory regions (electrodes P3, P7, Pz, P4, P8) in both DL conditions compared to CI, and repetitive learning. Increases in theta and alpha activity in motor areas (electrodes C3, Cz, C4) were found after chaotic DL compared to gradual DL, and CI. Anterior areas (electrodes F3, F7, Fz, F4, F8) showed increased activity in the beta and gamma bands after CI. Alpha activity was increased in occipital areas (electrodes O1, O2) after repetitive learning. Post-task EEG brain activation patterns suggest that DL stimulates the somatosensory and motor system, and engages more regions of the cortex than repetitive learning due to a tighter stimulation of the motor and somatosensory system during DL practice. CI seems to activate specifically executively controlled processing in anterior brain areas. We discuss the obtained patterns of post-training EEG traces as evidence for different underlying neural processes in CI, DL, and repetitive learning at the early stage of motor learning.

IntroductionPast education literature has shown benefits for random practice schedules (termed contextual interference) for skills retention and transfer to novel tasks. The purpose of fundamentals of laparoscopic surgery (FLS) training is to develop skills in simulation and transfer to new in vivo intraoperative experiences. The study objective was to assess whether individuals trained over a fixed number of trials in the FLS tasks would outperform untrained controls on an unpracticed previously validated bile duct cannulation task and scoring system and to determine whether random training schedules conferred any relative advantage.Methods44 trainees with no laparoscopic experience were recruited to participate. 35 were randomized to practice the FLS tasks using either a blocked or random training schedule. Nine were randomized to no additional training (controls). Participant performance was measured throughout training to monitor skills acquisition and were then tested on an unpracticed bile duct cannulation simulation task 4 to 6 weeks later. Outcomes included previously validated FLS scores and hand–motion analyses.ResultsAll 44 participants completed the study. Trained individuals in both groups showed significant improvements in all FLS tasks after training. There were no differences between groups in performance on the cannulation task median scores (Blocked: 89.8 [IQR:37.6]; Random: 83.2 [32.3]; Control: 83.6 [19.1]; p = 0.955), number of hand motions (Blocked: 42.5 [IQR:130.3]; Random: 75.3 [111.3]; Control: 63.0 [71.8]; p = 0.912), or distance traveled by participants hands (Blocked: 2.0 m [IQR:5.8]; Random: 3.8 [8.9]; Control: 2.6 [2.5]; p = 0.816). Cannulation task performance had no correlation with total FLS performance, R2 linear = 0.014, p = 0.445.ConclusionsSkills acquired from conventional FLS tasks did not effectively transfer to a laparoscopic bile duct cannulation task. Neither blocked nor random practice schedules conferred a relative advantage. These findings provide evidence that cannulation is a distinct skill from what is taught and assessed in FLS.