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Farming contour and terrace fields using automated guidance systems with global navigation satellite system (GNSS) receivers requires appropriate geographic features for effective guidance and soil and water conservation. The objective of this paper was to develop methodologies for improving and designing guidance features for operating guidance systems in contour and terrace fields. This study was conducted in the Texas High Plains where contour and terrace farming practices are prevalent in slope fields. Four case studies were used to demonstrate the application of a geographic information system (GIS) in optimizing guidance geographic features, including line smoothing, line extending and connecting, creating swath AB lines, and guide-to-line features. Line smoothing removes sharp angularities and curve oscillations on guidance line features, resulting in smooth and more effective guidance operations. The line extension and connection method creates a more convenient and simple guidance feature by combining multiple AB lines. Guide-to-line features derived from AB lines can eliminate confusions when using a guidance system with multiple AB lines in fields with complicated topographic attributes. A methodology was also developed to create guidance AB lines by processing the elevation data generated by a guidance system with a real-time kinematic (RTK) receiver. Guidance line features created in this study satisfy user requirements for effective guidance operations and soil and water conservation. Integrating the application of GIS spatial analysis capabilities and automated guidance systems can enhance farming operations by improving or creating guidance line features, as well as satisfying soil and water conservation needs. Parameter selection for enhancing or creating guidance line features needs to consider unique field conditions and user requirements for simple, convenient, and effective field operations.

Contour bank farming is a well-known agricultural management technique in areas which are characterised by intensive and erosive rainfalls. Contour banks are designed to reduce the flow velocity of overland flow and to intercept water before it concentrates in rills, thereby reducing the risk of soil erosion and land degradation. By their structure, contour banks noticeably impact surface runoff pattern both temporally and spatially. Also subsurface flow may be affected by contour banks. For example, if contour banks intersect the A- and B-horizon of the soil, it can cause significant infiltration of water into the C-horizon, which if saline, can generate saline interflow to downslope areas. Although these aspects have been highlighted in previous research efforts, the quantitative and qualitative impacts of contours on runoff generation and associated erosion dynamics or salinisation are rarely considered in process-based hydrological modelling approaches. In this study an approach was developed to improve distributed hydrological and erosion modelling by integrating contour banks in the delineation and routing of Hydrological Response Units. Applying the distributed and process-based hydrological model J2000 which was modified with a contour bank and erosion module it could be shown that the implementation of contour banks improved the model performance significantly.

Soil erosion is a critical global challenge that degrades land and water resources, leading to reduced soil fertility, pollution of water bodies, and sedimentation in hydraulic structures and reservoirs. In Ethiopia, where agriculture forms the backbone of the economy, unplanned LULC changes have intensified soil erosion, posing a significant threat to food security and sustainable development. In the Holota watershed of Ethiopia, rapid population growth and urbanization have accelerated unplanned land use and land cover (LULC) changes, significantly affecting soil erosion patterns. This study aims to assess the spatiotemporal changes in LULC and their impact on soil erosion from 2000 to 2050. Using Landsat imagery from 2000, 2010, and 2020, supervised classification with the maximum likelihood algorithm was applied in Google Earth Engine (GEE) to map five LULC classes: forest, cropland, built-up areas, shrubland, and grassland. The future LULC for 2050 was predicted using the CA–Markov chain model. Soil erosion for 2020 and 2050 LULC maps was estimated using the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE). Results indicate that annual soil loss in the watershed was 13.3 t ha − 1 yr − 1 in 2020, increasing to 15.9 t ha − 1 yr − 1 by 2050. Cropland, built-up areas, and grassland are expected to be the major contributors to future soil erosion, while forest and shrubland are likely to play a mitigating role. The novelty of this research lies in its integration of cutting-edge remote sensing technologies, such as GEE and the CA-Markov model, to predict the combined impact of LULC changes on soil erosion in a data-scarce region, providing actionable insights for conservation planning in Ethiopian highlands. These findings offer essential guidance for conservation planners to implement sustainable land management practices aimed at reducing soil erosion, including promoting forest restoration, adopting contour farming, and enforcing land use regulations to limit the expansion of cropland and built-up areas in erosion-prone zones.

Erosion is seen as a major productivity problem in the world. Unplanned agricultural practices caused by human activities initiate the soil erosion process. Especially in sloping areas, agricultural activities without soil conservation measures accelerate this process. This study prepared land use planning (LUP) scenarios to reduce soil losses in the Mikail Stream Micro-Basin, which has an erosion problem and a rough topography. ILSEN land evaluation method, which is formed by interpreting FAO land evaluation principles according to Turkish conditions, was used in the creation of the scenarios. Soil conservation (terracing and contour agriculture) land-use types (LUT) that can help in erosion reduction were included in the ILSEN method and 8 different LUP scenarios were created. Soil protected (terracing and contour farming) LUTs that can help reduce erosion were included in the ILSEN method and 8 different LAP scenarios were created. The RUSLE Method integrated with the Geographic Information System (GIS) was used to calculate the estimated amount of soil loss caused by the scenarios created. For land evaluation and erosion studies, serial-based soil map of the area and Google Earth images were used. Scenario 7 created has reduced soil loss by 79% compared to the present land use (Scenario 8) of the basin. While the soil loss caused by the present land-use of the basin was 335.95 tons ha −1  year −1 on average, the amount of soil loss caused by the 7th scenario was calculated as 69.05 tons ha −1  year −1 on average. The results showed that the ILSEN land evaluation method can be a model to be used in the creation of erosion-reducing LUP scenarios in areas with erosion problems.

Soil erosion is the inherent and destructive threat affecting agricultural production and livelihood of million mouths. The increased frequency of floods and land use/land cover changes has made Upper Jhelum Sub-catchment susceptible to soil erosion risk. Morphometric based watershed prioritization for soil erosion risk may help in sustainable management of natural resources. Thus, this paper endeavors to prioritize watersheds of Upper Jhelum Sub-catchment in India based on morphometric parameters for soil erosion risk using geospatial techniques. Weights to the morphometric parameters were assigned through a multi-criteria decision method. The watersheds in the Sub-catchment have been categorized into low, medium, high and very high priority classes based on prioritization ranks that were determined by computing the compound value for the soil erosion risk, based on prioritization ranks obtained through compound value for the soil erosion risk. The results revealed 1E1D3 and 1E1D8 watersheds accorded very high priority. The watersheds namely IE1D2 and IEID4 were found under high priority. Medium priority for soil erosion risk was determined in IEID5 and IED7 watersheds while 1E1D1 and IE1D6 watersheds were identified for low priority. The study calls for implementing soil conservation practices in the Sub-catchment. The Sub-catchment can be made less hazardous for the soil erosion risk by implementing contour farming, building check dams, terrace farming, afforestation and limiting large scale overgrazing. The findings of this study may offer valuable insights for stakeholders for conservation of soil resource. The approach utilized in the study may be linked with soil loss estimation for effective conservation of natural resources in further future studies.

Climate change is pushing rainfall in Assam to the extremes, leading to an overall decrease in precipitation but with more instances of drought and heavy rain. [...]the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that, in the next 50 years, the end of the East Asia monsoon season will be pushed back. Agroforestry provides tea plants with more shade, which helps to protect them from the heat of the Sun, and also reduces the amount of moisture that tea plants lose by transpiration, protects them from frost, and helps to prevent soil erosion. Soil conservation is the most common practice, with 82-100% of plantations doing things such as: covering soil with mulch (to conserve moisture); contour farming (in which crops or drainage ditches are located along terraces that follow the slope of the land to help water better soak into the soil and prevent erosion); providing shade for tea plants; or filling in bare ground with vegetation. The Tea Research Association in Jorhat, Assam, suggests that there should be more region-wide efforts to mitigate the effects of climate change, including management of water resources across entire watersheds, which comprise areas of land drained by specific rivers.

Soil erosion is the main drivers in the world and Ethiopia in particular. This study has been conducted at Dijo watersheds in the Rift valley Basins of Ethiopia to estimate soil erosion rate and identify erosion hotspot areas for proper planning using Geographic Information System and Universal Soil Loss Equation adapted to Ethiopian condition. 64 years mean annual rainfall data for estimating erosivity factor, digital soil map for estimating soil erodibility factor, Digital Elevation Model for estimating topographic (LS) factor, Land use land cover for cover factor detection from Ethiopian ministry of water resources. The result reveals that the soil loss ranges from 0 ton/ha/year in flat slope to 38.09 ton/ha/year from steep slopes. The average soil loss rate is 2.2 tons per hectare per year and has been classified into three erosion severity classes as very low, low and moderate. The result also reveals that most of the watershed erosion severity evaluated under very low and low soil erosion severity classes covering 97.3% of the watershed areas which is due to the effect of mixed plantation of various tree and terraces. However, moderate soil erosion in the upper parts of the watershed could be due to the inherent characteristics of vertisols, lack of vegetation cover and terraces which should be given first priority for conservation interventions. From the gross soil erosion, 43,762 ton/year sediment yields have been estimated at watershed outlet. Policy aim at keeping land productivity will need to focus to reduce low and moderate soil erosion through terracing, inter-cropping, contour farming, strip cropping, conservation tillage, mulching and biological stabilizers based on their slope range, soil type and land use type. The current finding on erosion was evaluated based on the past 10 years land use land cover scenario; therefore, soil erosion might be reduced if the current land use land cover scenario considered. Finally, the integration of USLE and GIS is an effective tool in mapping the spatial distribution of soil erosion from the entire watershed. The moderate and low soil erosion severity areas should be managed through terracing, inter-cropping, contour farming, strip cropping, conservation tillage, mulching and biological stabilizers based on their slope range, soil type and land use type. Free grazing and cultivation of steep slope(Northern parts) contributed for moderate soil erosion in the watershed should be managed by cut–carry system, limiting the number of cattle units to be grazed in the specific plot of land and leaving the marginal steep slope areas with no ground covers for natural regeneration. Finally, the current finding on erosion was evaluated based on the past 10-year land use land cover scenario. Therefore, the soil erosion could be reduced if the current land use land cover scenario is considered.

Soil erosion is one of the most serious environmental concerns as it threatens the sustainable agriculture and poses a grave threat to global food security. It is important to adopt the appropriate soil conservation measures to reduce the erosion hazard. In the present study, SWAT model has been applied to study the impact of various best management practices (BMPs) on sediment yield and nutrient losses from a Lower Sutlej River Basin, India. The impact of agricultural and structural BMPs was assessed both individually and in combinations to evaluate the best possible combination of BMPs. Three scenarios, viz., CT1-BMP-1 + CF-BMP-2 + CD-BMP-5 + Fertilizer level 1 (Scenario-1), CT1-BMP-1 + CF-BMP-2 + CB-BMP-3 + CD-BMP-5 + CT2-BMP-8 + Fertilizer level 2 (Scenario 2) and CT1-BMP-1 + CF-BMP-2 + CB-BMP-3 + BT-BMP-4 + CD-BMP-5 + GSS-BMP-6 + SBSS-BMP-7 + CT2-BMP-8 + Fertilizer level 3 (Scenario 3) were developed to study their impact on sediment yield and nutrient losses. The average annual sediment yield from watersheds ranges from 3.08 to 21.63 ton/ha/yr for the base scenario (without BMPs), 1.97 to 13.94 ton/ha/yr in scenario 1, 1.66 to 10.77 ton/ha/yr in scenario 2, and 1.04 to 7.78 ton/ha/yr in scenario 3. At the watershed level, the greatest decrease in sediment yield was obtained from check dam (28.72%), followed by bench terracing (25.62%), grade stabilization structures (22.74%), contour bunding (20.88%), stream bank stabilization structures (10.02%), contour trenching (8.99%), conservation tillage (6.66%) and contour farming (4.54%). The use of structural BMPs at the watershed level reduced sediment yields more effectively than agricultural BMPs. The implementation of all the potential BMPs in Scenario 3 minimized sediment yields to the extent of 66.25%. Model simulation demonstrated that a 30% reduction in fertilizer application under fertilizer scenario 3 resulted in the highest reduction in total nitrogen (24.04%), nitrate nitrogen (8.97%), and total phosphorus (11.75%). The study findings may be useful for promoting sustainable land and water resource management at the river basin level.

Contour farming technology plays a key role in reducing soil erosion, enhancing water use efficiency, and fostering sustainable agricultural development. Despite being a straightforward yet efficacious farming technique, it has not seen widespread implementation in China. Considering the deteriorating quality of arable lands in the Black Soil Region of Northeast China (BSR-NEC), it is necessary to investigate spatial patterns and identify suitable areas for contour farming in this region. To achieve this objective, spatial autocorrelation and grouping analysis methods were employed to classify the land into four categories of suitability for contour farming: highly suitable, moderately suitable, generally suitable, and unsuitable. The results reveal that: 1) the contour farming suitable area in BSR-NEC covers 89 861.32 km 2 , accounting for 21.59% of arable land as of 2020. Heilongjiang Province owns the largest suitable area of 32 853.68 km 2 , and Inner Mongolia has the highest proportion of 28.89%. 2) In terms of the spatial distribution, regions with higher suitability for contour farming are concentrated in the Da Hinggan Mountains region, particularly Nenjiang City (Heilongjiang Province), which has the highest area of 2593.07 km 2 . Areas with a high proportion of suitable arable lands for contour farming are mainly found in the Da Hinggan Mountains and Changbai Mountains regions, with Ergun City (Inner Mongolia) having the highest proportion at 47.2%. Regions with higher suitability and proportion are concentrated in the Da Hinggan Mountains region, primarily covering the Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang. 3) Regarding spatial clustering, both the area and proportion of suitable contour farming areas exhibit noticeable clustering effects, though not entirely consistent. 4) Group analysis results designate 148 counties in BSR-NEC as highly suitable areas, predominantly located in the Changbai Mountains region, Liaodong Peninsula, Hulun Buir Plateau, and the north and south regions of the Da Hinggan Mountains. The zoning of suitable areas for contour farming in BSR-NEC informs the strategic development of policies and measures, allowing for the implementation of targeted policies in distinct areas suitable for contour farming. This provides a valuable reference for promoting contour farming technology more effectively and efficiently.re effectively and efficiently.

PurposeSoil erosion is a widespread problem that has threatened the majority of Mediterranean countries. Land management practices are widely used to minimize runoff and sediment loads at the catchment scale. However, their effectiveness cannot be easily assessed. Thus, models have been applied to estimate their impact on runoff dynamics and soil erosion and to identify the optimal conservation measure that can be used for specific land uses.Materials and methodsThis study applied the SWAT model to spatially predict soil erosion over the Sarrath River catchment (1491 km2) in northwestern Tunisia, and to evaluate the effectiveness of different land management practices in reducing runoff and soil erosion. Calibration and validation of the model were done at the monthly scale for the period 2001–2008. Seven scenarios of best management were proposed including three combined scenarios. Each scenario needed a modification of one or more input parameters in SWAT model. The baseline values, scenario 0, represent the existing conditions.Results and discussionThe SWAT model was successful in reproducing water flow, and a good correlation between simulated runoff and sediment yield was observed. Simulated average soil erosion rate for the baseline conditions was 5.1 t ha−1 year−1. It was found that only 10% of the total area can experience high and very high soil erosion risk, but disproportionately contribute to the maximum amount of the total soil loss (71%). Implementation of individual scenarios reduced runoff from 5 to 22% and sediment loads from 5 to 30% from the baseline scenario. Combining different scenarios resulted in greater reduction. The highest reductions were achieved when combining reforestation of degraded lands and bare lands with contour farming and parallel terraces on agricultural fields.ConclusionsSimulation results showed that land conservation measures could reduce sediment yield by about 5 to 43% and runoff by 5 to 32%. For individual scenarios, parallel terraces were the most effective both for runoff and for sediment loss, followed by forestation. The best results were obtained for combined scenarios. Targeting the prioritized sub-catchments, reductions reached 78% for runoff and 88% for sediment loss in sub-catchment 4.