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How convective boundary‐layer (CBL) processes modify fluxes of sensible (SH) and latent (LH) heat and CO2 (Fc) in the atmospheric surface layer (ASL) remains a recalcitrant problem. Here, large eddy simulations for the CBL show that while SH in the ASL decreases linearly with height regardless of soil moisture conditions, LH and Fc decrease linearly with height over wet soils but increase with height over dry soils. This varying flux divergence/convergence is regulated by changes in asymmetric flux transport between top‐down and bottom‐up processes. Such flux divergence and convergence indicate that turbulent fluxes measured in the ASL underestimate and overestimate the “true” surface interfacial fluxes, respectively. While the non‐closure of the surface energy balance persists across all soil moisture states, it improves over drier soils due to overestimated LH. The non‐closure does not imply that Fc is always underestimated; Fc can be overestimated over dry soils despite the non‐closure issue. Plain Language Summary Large swirling motions, called large turbulent eddies, efficiently transport water vapor, carbon dioxide, and heat up and down throughout the convective boundary layer (CBL). To what extent scalar fluxes in the atmospheric surface layer (ASL) are modulated by large turbulent eddies from the top of the CBL (i.e., top‐down eddies) remains a recalcitrant problem in many fields spanning atmospheric sciences, hydrology, ecology, and climate change. Here, high‐resolution computational simulations of the CBL show that scalar fluxes in the ASL linearly change with height across soil wetness conditions largely due to changes in the interactions of top‐down processes and bottom‐up surface exchange. Such linear height‐dependence of the fluxes indicates that reported fluxes from direct turbulent measurements in the ASL are not identical to their sought surface values. As a result, the non‐closure of the surface energy balance occurs across all soil moisture conditions but improves as soil becomes dry. CO2 measured fluxes are underestimated over wet soils and overestimated over dry soils, which has its implication when interpreting CO2 exchanges from global flux measuring networks utilizing turbulence theories. Height dependence of fluxes, which confirms that the constant flux layer assumption is not routinely satisfied, is a fundamental reason for the non‐closure. Key Points Asymmetric flux transport by bottom‐up and top‐down processes leads to varying flux divergence/convergence (FDC) in the surface layer Latent heat and CO2 fluxes are underestimated when soil is wet and overestimated when dry, but sensible heat flux is always underestimated Non‐closure of the surface energy balance is regulated by varying FDC and improves for dry soils due to overestimated latent heat flux

This book contains the proceedings of the 14th International Conference on p-adic Functional Analysis, held from June 30-July 4, 2016, at the Universit d'Auvergne, Aurillac, France. Articles included in this book feature recent developments in various areas of non-Archimedean analysis: summation of p-adic series, rational maps on the projective line over \\mathbb{Q}p, non-Archimedean Hahn-Banach theorems, ultrametric Calkin algebras, G-modules with a convex base, non-compact Trace class operators and Schatten-class operators in p-adic Hilbert spaces, algebras of strictly differentiable functions, inverse function theorem and mean value theorem in Levi-Civita fields, ultrametric spectra of commutative non-unital Banach rings, classes of non-Archimedean K the spaces, p-adic Nevanlinna theory and applications, and sub-coordinate representation of p-adic functions. Moreover, a paper on the history of p-adic analysis with a comparative summary of non-Archimedean fields is presented. Through a combination of new research articles and a survey paper, this book provides the reader with an overview of current developments and techniques in non-Archimedean analysis as well as a broad knowledge of some of the sub-areas of this exciting and fast-developing research area.

During neurogenesis, mitotic progenitor cells lining the ventricles of the embryonic mouse brain undergo their final rounds of cell division, giving rise to a wide spectrum of postmitotic neurons and glia 1 , 2 . The link between developmental lineage and cell-type diversity remains an open question. Here we used massively parallel tagging of progenitors to track clonal relationships and transcriptomic signatures during mouse forebrain development. We quantified clonal divergence and convergence across all major cell classes postnatally, and found diverse types of GABAergic neuron that share a common lineage. Divergence of GABAergic clones occurred during embryogenesis upon cell-cycle exit, suggesting that differentiation into subtypes is initiated as a lineage-dependent process at the progenitor cell level. Single-cell RNA sequencing with parallel tagging of progenitor cells is used to track clonal relationships and transcriptomic signatures during development of the mouse forebrain.

This article applies scientometric techniques to study the evolution of the field of entrepreneurship between 1990 and 2013. Using a combination of topic mapping, author and journal co-citation analyses, and overlay visualization of new and hot topics in the field, this article makes important contribution to the entrepreneurship research by identifying 46 topics in the 24-year history of entrepreneurship research and demonstrates how they appear, disappear, reappear and stabilize over time. It also identifies five topics that are persistent across the 24-year study period--institutions and institutional entrepreneurship, innovation and technology management, policy and development, entrepreneurial process and opportunity, and new ventures--which I labeled as The Pentagon of Entrepreneurship. Overall, the analyses revealed patterns of convergence and divergence and the diversity of topics, specialization, and interdisciplinary engagement in entrepreneurship research, thus offering the latest insights on the state of the art of the field.

The diagnostic evaluation of moisture budgets in archived atmosphere model data is examined. Sources of error in diagnostic computation can arise from the use of numerical methods different from those used in the atmosphere model, the time and vertical resolution of the archived data, and data availability. These sources of error are assessed using the climatological moisture balance in the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts Interim Re-Analysis (ERA-Interim) that archives vertically integrated moisture fluxes and convergence. The largest single source of error arises from the diagnostic evaluation of divergence. The chosen second-order accurate centered finite difference scheme applied to the actual vertically integrated moisture fluxes leads to significant differences from the ERA-Interim reported moisture convergence. Using daily data, instead of 6-hourly data, leads to an underestimation of the patterns of moisture divergence and convergence by midlatitude transient eddies. A larger and more widespread error occurs when the vertical resolution of the model data is reduced to the 8 levels that is quite common for daily data archived for the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP). Dividing moisture divergence into components due to the divergent flow and advection requires bringing the divergence operator inside the vertical integral, which introduces a surface term for which a means of accurate evaluation is developed. The analysis of errors is extended to the case of the spring 1993 Mississippi valley floods, the causes of which are discussed. For future archiving of data (e.g., by CMIP), it is recommended that monthly means of time-step-resolution flow–humidity covariances be archived at high vertical resolution.

The subseasonal variation of the anomalous western North Pacific anticyclone (WNPAC) has important implications for East Asian summer monsoon variability. How the WNPAC evolves on the subseasonal time scale under the different configurations of tropical North Atlantic (TNA) Ocean and north Indian Ocean (NIO) SST warming is elucidated in this study. The WNPAC forced by individual TNA SST warming shows an obvious subseasonal variation with a stepwise northward movement. In contrast, the WNPAC forced by individual NIO SST warming shows a weak subseasonal variation, being nearly stabilized at around 20°N from June to August and thereby causing long-lasting and intense positive mei-yu–baiu–changma rainfall anomalies. The physical mechanism for the different subseasonal variation of WNPAC is further investigated. The TNA SST warming generates a WNPAC via a Rossby wave–induced divergence/convergence chain response. In this process, the TNA SST warming-induced suppressed convection over the western Pacific moves northward with the northward movement of climatological intertropical convergence zone and summer monsoon region, which generates a northward shift of the WNPAC. However, the NIO SST warming produces a WNPAC via a Kelvin wave–induced suppressed convection over the western Pacific Ocean. This suppressed convection is stabilized at around 20°N because of the Kelvin wave activity scope being limited within 20°N, which finally produces a nearly stationary WNPAC from June to August. In addition, under the simultaneous occurrence of the TNA and NIO SST warming, the subseasonal variation of WNPAC bears a resemblance to that for the individual NIO SST warming condition, where the TNA SST warming fails to exert its impact.

In the mesosphere‐lower thermosphere region, atmospheric plasma components exhibit short‐term enhancements, forming sporadic E (Es) layers that impact communication systems. The prevailing theory posits that neutral wind shear is the primary driver of mid‐latitude Es layer. Here, we present neutral wind field data from the ICON/Michelson Interferometer for Global High‐resolution Thermospheric Imaging mission during 2019–2022, revealing a clear relationship between wind shear and Es layer formation in the Northern Hemisphere. Notably, the vertical ion divergence/convergence significantly impact mid‐latitude Es production. Inspired by deep learning techniques, we developed a deep learning model based on wind shear and neutral wind data, reconstructing the small‐scale morphology of Es layers. Vertical ion convergence information derived from the wind shear physical equations was found to be a key factor in enhancing model performance. Our results demonstrate that incorporating physical data from vertical ion drift improves the predictive capabilities of ionospheric irregularities artificial intelligence models, increasing the accuracy from 71.6% to 87.9%.

The present study investigated impacts of strong and weak El Niño events on central Asian precipitation variability from El Niño developing years to decaying years. It is found that strong El Niño events persistently enhance central Asian precipitation from the mature winter to decaying summer. Large warm sea surface temperature (SST) anomalies in the tropical central-eastern Pacific induce anomalous upper-level divergence and updraft over central Asia through large-scale convergence and divergence in the mature winter and decaying spring. Meanwhile, the associated wind anomalies induce anomalous eastward and northeastward moisture flux from the North Atlantic and the Arabian Sea to central Asia. Both anomalous ascent and moisture flux convergence favor above-normal precipitation over central Asia in the mature winter and decaying spring. The El Niño events induced central Asian precipitation anomalies that are extended to the decaying summer due to the role of soil moisture. Increased rainfall in winter and spring enhances soil moisture in the following summer, which in turn contributes to more precipitation in summer through modulating regional evaporation. During weak El Niño events, significant wet anomalies are only seen in the developing autumn, which result from anomalous southeastward moisture flux from the Arctic Ocean, and the abnormal signals are weak in the other seasons. The different responses of central Asian precipitation to strong and weak El Niño events may be attributed to the difference in intensity of tropical SST anomalies between the two types of events.

An empirical question that has motivated demographers is whether there is convergence or divergence in mortality/longevity around the world. The epidemiological transition is the starting point for studying a global process of mortality convergence. This manuscript aims to provide an update on the concept of mortality convergence/divergence. We perform a comprehensive examination of nine different mortality indicators from a global perspective using clustering methods in the period 1990-2030. In addition, we include analyses of projections to provide insights into prospective trajectories of convergence clubs, a dimension unexplored in previous work. The results indicate that mortality convergence clubs of 194 countries by sex resemble the configuration of continents. These five clubs show a common steady upward trend in longevity indicators, accompanied by a progressive reduction in disparities between sexes and between groups of countries. Furthermore, this paper shows insights into the historical evolution of the convergence clubs in the period 1990-2020 and expands their scope to include projections of their expected future evolution in 2030.

The aim of this article is to identify areas of convergence and divergence in the value systems of secular ethics and Christian ethics and to address what is meant by the moral development of individual persons and communities. The article discusses the views of Martin Prozesky on religion, the creation of a global ethic and secular spirituality from the perspective of Christian ethics. The discussion draws on the ‘Barthian-Thomism’ of Nigel Biggar and the four key moral questions posed by Dallas Willard in order to identify elements of convergence and divergence related to worldviews, values, virtues and the moral development of persons and groups.