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The diagnostics of ruminant parasites remains one of the cornerstones for parasite control best practices. Field veterinarians have several techniques at their disposal (fecal egg count, coproculture, FAMACHA®, plasma pepsinogen, ELISA- Ostertagia , ELISA- Fasciola , Baermann and ELISA-Lungworm) for the identification and/or quantification of gastrointestinal nematodes, lungworms and liver fluke infecting small ruminants and cattle. Each of these diagnostic tools has its own strengths and weaknesses and is more appropriate for a specific production operation and/or age of the animal (young and adults). This review focuses on the usability and interpretation of the results of these diagnostic tools. The most advanced technical information on sampling, storage, advantages and limitations of each tool for different types of production operations and animal categories is provided. Graphical abstract

Purpose: To assess the efficacy of three proposed anthelminthic combination regimens for the treatment of strongyloidiasis using real-time polymerase chain reaction (real-time PCR) diagnostic method. Methods: We conducted an interventional randomized assessor-blinded clinical trial in which participants positive for strongyloidiasis were treated with three different therapeutic regimens: albendazole (ABZ) once a day for three days, and ABZ on days 1 and 3 associated with mebendazole (MBZ) or pyrantel (PYR) on day 2, respectively. All participants were seen after treatment for drug efficacy assessment. Microscopy methods and real-time PCR analysis were used for the diagnosis of strongyloidiasis, and the proportions of positive cases were compared between the two tests. Cure rate (CR) was reported to describe the efficacy of each treatment regimen. Risk factors for strongyloidiasis were assessed. Results: Fifty-nine of the 272 participants included in the study were positive for S. stercoralis infection at baseline as determined by either microscopy and/or PCR. The PCR-positive cases were 3.92 times higher than microscopy positive cases. The microscopy- and PCR-based corrected CRs were 100% and 68% (95%CI: 53–81), respectively. The CR was greater for the ABZ-ABZ-ABZ (77%; 95%CI: 55–92) than for the ABZ-MBZ-ABZ (69%; 95%CI: 39–91) or ABZ-PYR-ABZ (50%; 95%CI: 21–79) regimens, but the difference was not statistically significant. None of the factors investigated (age, sex, or location) were associated with either being infected with S. stercoralis in our cohort or being cured. Conclusion: Our findings indicate that on the one hand, the need for a more sensitive method than current microscopy for the diagnosis of strongyloidiasis and on the other hand ABZ alone repeated over three days has better efficacy for the treatment of strongyloidiasis than alternating ABZ with MBZ or PYR for the same period of treatment. However, its efficacy remains limited, raising the necessity for the development of alternative treatments. Clinical trial: Registered at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT04326868) on March 04, 2020.

Nodular roundworms (Oesophagostomum spp.) are frequent parasites of the large intestine in several mammal species including humans and pigs, and their study often requires the use of infective larvae produced using several coproculture techniques. However, there is no published comparison of techniques to determine which yields the highest number of larvae. This study compares the number of larvae recovered from coprocultures made with charcoal, sawdust, vermiculite, and water in an experiment repeated twice using feces from a sow naturally infected with Oesophagostomum spp. at an organic farm. A higher number of larvae were recovered from coprocultures using sawdust relative to other types of media used, and this was consistent across the two trials. The use of sawdust to culture Oesophagostomum spp. larvae is rarely reported and our study suggests it can yield higher numbers relative to other media.

Background and Aim: Anthelmintic resistance (AR) in gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) is currently present worldwide and a major challenge to goat production. However, no updated information is available on this topic in the study area. Thus, this study evaluated the efficacy of commonly used anthelmintics on GINs in naturally-infected goats and assessed farmers' perception of anthelmintic utilization practices in Humbo district, Southern Ethiopia. Materials and Methods: The field experiments for routinely used anthelmintics, namely, albendazole, ivermectin, and tetramisole, were conducted from September 2022 to April 2023. Sixty naturally-infected goats with nematodes were selected based on egg count ([greater than or equal to]150 eggs per gram of feces) and allocated randomly into four groups (15 animals per group). Then, fecal samples were collected pre-and post-treatment and examined for fecal egg count reduction (FECRT) to determine the AR status of goat GINs. The modified McMaster technique using standard floatation was used for quantifying the eggs. In addition, a questionnaire survey was conducted to assess anthelmintic utilization practices among goat owners. Results: The FECR levels for albendazole, ivermectin, and tetramisole were 94.6, 95.9, and 97.3%, respectively. By coproculture, the nematode genera identified before treatment were Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Teladorsagia, Oesophagostomum, Bunostomum, and Chabertia Species. However, post-treatment fecal cultures showed that some Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, and Strongyloides spp. did not respond to the treatments. The questionnaire survey revealed that albendazole was the most commonly used anthelmintic to treat nematode infection in goats. Respondents expressed that anthelmintic treatment was utilized based on veterinarian prescription (59%), availability (32%), efficacy (4%), and affordability (5%). Conclusion: Tetramisole should be used cautiously to prevent the development of resistant strains, as it was still effective in the study area. Additionally, regular monitoring of anthelmintic effectiveness is necessary. Keywords: drug resistance, fecal egg count, coproculture, parasites, small ruminants, Southern Ethiopia

Background The increasing difficulties in combating anthelmintic resistance in gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs) of sheep worldwide, and the residues of chemical drugs in animal products and the environment, necessitate the search for alternatives. Previous studies have shown that plant essential oils (EOs) could be valuable anthelmintic agents, due to their numerous advantages. The present study aimed to evaluate the possibility of using winter savory ( Satureja montana L.) EO against sheep GINs. The chemical composition of the tested oil was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The efficacy of the tested oil was determined in vitro using the egg hatch test (EHT), and in vivo using the faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) performed in two farms. Preliminary toxicity studies including clinical observation, haematological and biochemical blood analysis were also performed to evaluate the safety of the tested oil to the hosts. In addition, a coproculture study was carried out in the tested farms using the appropriate morphological keys. Results Main compounds of the S. montana oil identified by GC–MS analysis were p -cymene (42.8%), carvacrol (28.1%) and y-terpinene (14.6%). The in vitro EHT showed a dose-dependent (R 2  = 0.94) anthelmintic potential of the tested oil, with ovicidal activity varying from 17.0–83.3% and determined IC 50 value of 0.59 mg/ml. The field efficacy reached 33% (at group level) and 50% (at individual level) at D14 after treatment. In vivo efficacy was significantly higher in farm 2 (FEC above 65% at group level, p  < 0.05) where sheep were kept in pens during treatment. No toxic effects were observed, either in the physical observation of the test animals or in their liver and kidney function. No significant changes ( p  > 0.05) in the percentage representation of GIN genera were observed in the coproculture study, indicating that the treatment agent was not specific to a single genus. Conclusion The anthelmintic potential showed on EHT and FECRT, without adverse effects on the sheep, suggests that S. montana EO is suitable for the control of sheep GINs as part of an integrated parasite management. However, further studies should be conducted to increase efficacy in field conditions.

Background & objectives: Different coproculture techniques have been developed for culturing the hookworm (HW) larvae for morphological identification in the resource-limited settings. The objective of this study was to compare the performances of Harada-Mori culture (HMC), agar plate culture (APC) and modified APC (MAPC) of HW positive stool specimens for identification of HW species in East Sikkim. Methods: This prospective study was done in East Sikkim from May 2015 to May 2016. Stool and blood samples were collected from paediatric patients with gastrointestinal symptoms. The HW positive stool specimens by microscopy were subjected to HMC, APC and MAPC techniques to harvest HW larvae. Stoll's dilution egg count for determining egg intensity and blood parameters were performed in all the 12 HW-positive patients. Results: Twelve of the 180 samples were found positive for HW by microscopy and predominance of Necator americanus (75%) over Ancylostoma duodenale (25%) was observed. Blood parameters results showed high pack cell volume (PCV) values in 78.6 per cent, anaemia in 75 per cent and high eosinophil count in most patients. Stoll's dilution egg count showed moderate infection in 66.6 per cent, light and heavy infections in 16.7 per cent each. Interpretation & conclusions: Our results showed that APC yielded 100 per cent results and was easier to perform in the laboratory compared to MAPC and HMC techniques.

Gastrointestinal (GI) helminth parasitism is one of the major constraints for profitable sheep production. Due to variations in the prevalence of GI helminths from region to region, it becomes important to map out accurately the parasitic fauna of a particular region for development of suitable control measures. An extensive study of GI helminths was carried out in Budgam district of Kashmir Valley over a period of 1 year. A total of 1200 fresh ovine faecal samples from both sexes of young ones and adults were collected in sterilized plastic bags and examined by standard sedimentation and floatation techniques. Positive faecal samples (15-20%) in each season were examined by Stoll's dilution method to determine the parasitic load. A total of 120 faecal samples (30 samples in each season) positive for strongyle eggs were subjected to coproculture using Petridish method and the third stage larvae were harvested to find out prevalence of different genera of strongyle worms. The overall prevalence of GI helminths was found to be 77% with platyhelminths and nemathelminthes in 26.58 and 60.92% animals, respectively. The overall prevalence of mixed GI helminths was found to be 8.67%. Eggs of various helminths encountered in the present study were those of Fasciola spp. (3.58%), Dicrocoelium spp. (11.58%), paramphistomes (4.83%), Moniezia spp. (7.92%), strongyle worms including Nematodirus spp. (57.75%), Strongyloides spp. (1.67%), and Trichuris spp. (1.5%). On coprocultural examination Haemonchus spp. (55%) was found to be most predominant strongyle worm followed by Trichostrongylus spp. (17.5%), Ostertagia spp. (11.67%), Oesophagostomum spp. (9.17%), and Chabertia spp. (6.67%). On seasonal basis, highest prevalence of GI helminths was recorded in summer (83.00%) followed by spring (78.67%), winter (76.33%), and autumn (70.00%), the difference being statistically non-significant (p>0.05). The prevalence of platyhelminths (Fasciola spp., Dicrocoelium spp. and Moniezia spp.) was found to be non-significantly higher in winter, but paramphistomes showed the highest prevalence in the summer season. Nemathelminth infection was found highest in summer season and lowest during the winter season. Eggs per gram (EPG) ranged from 0 to 1800, and an average EPG count was found to be 454.35±27.85. EPG was found to be highest in summer (684.00±69.83) and lowest in winter (202.38±18.82). The overall prevalence of GI helminths was found more in adult sheep (83.00%) compared to young ones (53.11%), the difference being statistically significant (p<0.05). Similarly, the prevalence of helminths was found to be higher in females (78.32%) as compared to males (72.97%), the variation being statistically non-significant (p>0.05). Seasonal variation plays an important role in the prevalence of GI helminths in addition to age and sex of the animal.

Background: Human hookworm infection has widespread socioeconomic and public health implications. Several coproculture techniques have been developed for morphological identification of hookworm larvae under limited resource availability. The objective of this study was to compare the performances of Harada-Mori culture (HMC), agar plate culture (APC), and modified APC (MAPC) of hookworm positive stool specimen for identification of hookworm species occurring in East Sikkim, India. Materials and Methods: This prospective cohort study was performed using 180 stool specimen collected from children who attended Central Referral Hospital and Sir Thodup Namgyal Memorial Hospital, with the complained of gastrointestinal symptoms. Blood samples were also collected to correlate with the complete blood count (CBC). The hookworm positive stool specimen evaluated by microscopy was subjected to HMC, APC, and MAPC techniques to harvest hookworm larvae. Stoll's dilution egg count for determining egg intensity and CBC were also performed for the children who were positive for hookworm's eggs in their stool sample. Results: This study observed a predominance of Necator americanus (75%) over Ancylostoma duodenale (25%). CBC results showed high packed cell volume values in 9/12, low hemoglobin 9/12, and high eosinophil count in all the positive children. Stoll's dilution egg count showed moderate infection in 66.6%, light and heavy infections in 16.7% of children's. APC method was superior to HMC and MAPC in culturing and identifying hookworm species. Conclusions: APC was observed to yield better results and was easier to perform in limited resource laboratory setting compare to MAPC or Harada-Mori culture techniques.

The objective was to determine the frequency of gastrointestinal parasites (GP) genera affecting water buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ) reared under humid tropical conditions of Mexico. Three hundred eighty-three Munrah breed water buffalo were included, 251 adult females and 132 calves. Feces were directly collected form the rectum of the animals and processed by the McMaster technique. Coprocultures were made to identify the genera of the nematodes. The frequency of GP in B. bubalis was 42%, independently of their age, 60% of calves resulted parasitized. Age had a strong association with the presence of GP (Xi 2  = 77.4014, d.f. = 1, p  = 0.001). The family Trichostrongylidae was found in both age groups. The genera identified were Strongyloides sp. (47.2%), Cooperia sp. (33.9%), and Haemonchus sp. (10.4%), as well as Eimeria sp., Moniezia sp., Trichuris sp., and Strongyloides sp. The highest parasite burden corresponded to the genus Strongyloides sp. with 1108.9 EPG. There is a need to carry out further studies in order to know the prevalence and incidence of nematode affecting to B. bubalis as an introduced animal species to Mexican tropics.

More than 95 % of Brazil’s beef production occurs in pastures where parasitic helminths are a serious problem, potentially inhibiting an average annual weight gain of 8 kg per young animal. Current pharmaceutical treatments for parasitic infestation are expensive (estimated to cost Brazil 370 million U.S. dollars per year) and sometimes inefficient due to rapid adaptation of worms to new drugs. The presence of trees in pastures (silvopasture) has proven to be environmentally beneficial, but may favor multiplication of parasites and cause higher infestation rates compared to traditional pastures. This study in Southeastern Brazil compared the weight gains of crossbred Holstein and Gir (Zebu) bovines, 8–24 months of age, under two different grazing systems: open (tree-less) pasture, and silvopasture (primarily “Sucupiras Brancas” at 156 trees ha −1 ). Despite the favorable environment for helminths, silvopasture did not increase the worm egg count per gram of animal feces and did not create overall weight or weight gain patterns different from those of animals grazing on the open pasture. The experiment took place from August 2008 to February 2009, encapsulating the transition from the dry to rainy season; a period when worm infection rates are highest, causing the greatest impact in animal development. The significance of this period aside, the results must be taken as indicative due to the short time frame and the extraneous challenges of climate variation, individual immune system resistance development, and natural helminth predator growth conditions.