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Background: Scientific and rational fertilizer management can not only improve the yield and quality of hazelnut (Corylus heterophylla × Corylus avellana) but also reduce the negative impact on the environment. Methods: Liquid Chromatography–tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) technology was used to reveal the contents of various metabolites in hazelnut seedlings, and differential metabolites were screened by principal component analysis (PCA) and partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). Results: The results showed that a total of 178 up-regulated differential metabolites (Fold change > 1) and 175 down-regulated differential metabolites (Fold change < 1) were detected in 6 comparison groups (DWF0 vs. DWF4, DWF0 vs. DWF5, DWF0 vs. DWF6, DWF4 vs. DWF5, DWF4 vs. DWF6, DWF5 vs. DWF6). Interestingly, the flavonoid metabolic pathway was dramatically enriched, and it was involved in each fertilization combination. The metabolites of the flavonoid pathway in different fertilized and unfertilized groups were compared and analyzed, which displayed that metabolites tricetin, eriodictyol, garbanzol, apigenin, and biochanin A were significantly up-regulated, while garbanzol and astraglin were significantly down-regulated. More interestingly, the determination of flavonoid content and real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) displayed that the application of trace element water-soluble fertilizer could significantly enhance the flavonoid content and the expression of genes related to the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway, such as phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) and cinnamate 4-hydroxylase (C4H), with the DWF4 treatment displaying the most significant values. Conclusions: Overall, the application of trace element water-soluble fertilizer (especially the DWF4 treatment) markedly affected the changes in key metabolites of the flavonoid pathway and the expression levels of key genes, thus promoting the growth and development of the hazelnut, which offers an important starting point for future analysis through genetic engineering.

The utilization of plant extracts in nanoparticle (NP) synthesis has been suggested as a nature-friendly method and an efficient alternative to the conventional approaches such as physical and chemical methods. Taxol is a valuable medicinal compound, and hazelnut has been suggested as one of the sustainable resources for producing this metabolite. In the present research, copper oxide (CuO) nanoparticles (NPs) were biologically synthesized by utilizing hazelnut leaf extracts. FTIR, XRD, EDAX, DLS, and SEM analyses were used for characterizing and confirming the synthesized NPs. The effect of biosynthesized CuO NPs (10 and 90 ppm), para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) (20 ppm), and CuSO 4 (10 ppm) on the cell viability, biochemical properties, expression of TAT and GGPPS genes, and accumulation of taxol and baccatin III in hazelnut cell cultures was investigated. The results indicated that biosynthesized CuO NPs significantly influenced the cell viability, amount of ROS, antioxidant capacity, lipid peroxidation, secondary metabolite production, and expression pattern of the genes engaged in the biosynthesis pathway of taxanes in the C. avellana L. cells. The cytotoxicity of CuO NPs to cells was dose dependent and increased with increasing its concentration, as evidenced by a decline in the survival rate and cell membrane integrity. Furthermore, the utilization of 10 ppm CuSO 4 caused more toxicity in the cells than the same concentration of CuO NPs. This result could be attributed to the fact that plant extracts components act as a coating for the NPs and reduce their toxicity. Treatment of the cell cultures with CuO (10 ppm) + PABA (20 ppm) and CuO (10 ppm) induced the highest radical scavenging activity. The activity of antioxidant enzymes was increased with increasing the copper oxide NPs level from 10 to 90 ppm. Contrariwise, the cell’s survival rate, radical scavenging activity, and amount of secondary metabolites were significantly reduced in the higher levels of copper oxide NPs (90 ppm) compared to the 10 ppm. The combined utilization of 10 ppm copper oxide NPs and 20 ppm PABA considerably stimulated the TAT and GGPPS genes expression and produced the highest amount of taxol and baccatin III. Key points • CuO NPs were biologically synthesized using the hazel leaf extracts and confirmed by FTIR, XRD, EDAX, DLS, and SEM analyses. • CuO NPs significantly affected the amount of ROS, antioxidant capacity, and lipid peroxidation in C. avellana L. cells. • Treatment of the hazel cells with CuO NPs increased the production of secondary metabolites including taxol and baccatin III and expression of the genes involved in taxol and baccatin III biosynthesis (TAT and GGPPS).

The volatilome of hazelnuts ( Corylus avellana L.) encrypts information about phenotype expression as a function of cultivar/origin, post-harvest practices, and their impact on primary metabolome, storage conditions and shelf-life, spoilage, and quality deterioration. Moreover, within the bulk of detectable volatiles, just a few of them play a key role in defining distinctive aroma (i.e., aroma blueprint) and conferring characteristic hedonic profile. In particular, in raw hazelnuts, key-odorants as defined by sensomics are: 2,3-diethyl-5-methylpyrazine ( musty and nutty ); 2-acetyl-1,4,5,6-tetrahydropyridine ( caramel ); 2-acetyl-1-pyrroline ( popcorn-like ); 2-acetyl-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyridine ( roasted, caramel ); 3-(methylthio)-propanal ( cooked potato ); 3-(methylthio)propionaldehyde ( musty, earthy ); 3,7-dimethylocta-1,6-dien-3-ol/linalool (citrus, floral); 3-methyl-4-heptanone ( fruity, nutty ); and 5-methyl-(E)-2-hepten-4-one ( nutty, fruity ). Dry-roasting on hazelnut kernels triggers the formation of additional potent odorants, likely contributing to the pleasant aroma of roasted nuts. Whiting the newly formed aromas, 2,3-pentanedione ( buttery ); 2-propionyl-1-pyrroline ( popcorn-like ); 3-methylbutanal; ( malty ); 4-hydroxy-2,5-dimethyl-3(2H)-furanone ( caramel ); dimethyl trisulfide ( sulfurous, cabbage ) are worthy to be mentioned. The review focuses on high-quality hazelnuts adopted as premium primary material by the confectionery industry. Information on primary and secondary/specialized metabolites distribution introduces more specialized sections focused on volatilome chemical dimensions and their correlation to cultivar/origin, post-harvest practices and storage, and spoilage phenomena. Sensory-driven studies, based on sensomic principles, provide insights on the aroma blueprint of raw and roasted hazelnuts while robust correlations between non-volatile precursors and key-aroma compounds pose solid foundations to the conceptualization of aroma potential .

Corylus avellana L. is a rare and endangered species in Kazakhstan, included in the national Red Book. The results of morphological and genetic characterization of the sole known natural population of C. avellana in the Western Kazakhstan region are presented in this study. Sixty wild accessions were evaluated based on tree and leaf morphological traits using standard descriptors in accordance with Bioversity International guidelines. Genetic diversity was assessed using ten nuclear simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. A total of 120 alleles were detected across the nuclear loci, with the number of alleles per locus ranging from 9 to 16 and an average of 12. The mean effective number of alleles (Ne) per locus was 3.862. A high level of intraspecific polymorphism was observed, with an average observed heterozygosity (Ho) of 0.70. The population showed considerable genetic diversity, as highlighted by a mean Shannon’s diversity index of 1.526. STRUCTURE, PCoA, and phylogenetic analyses confirmed strong differentiation between the wild Kazakh population and the cultivated hazelnut germplasm. Due to the lack of viable seeds, in vitro conservation was initiated using vegetative shoots. A two-step disinfection protocol, involving Plant Preservative Mixture and mercuric chloride, significantly improved explant survival, enabling successful establishment of an aseptic in vitro collection. These findings highlight the urgent need for targeted conservation strategies and show the potential of biotechnological approaches for safeguarding Kazakhstan’s only natural C. avellana population.

In the current study, a simple cryopreservation method (desiccation) was applied to Corylus avellana L. callus. Accordingly, the effects of abscisic acid (ABA) concentration, pretreatment duration on MS medium containing ABA + 10% sucrose, and storage length in liquid nitrogen (LN) on the callus survival rate were investigated. Calli’s survival was assessed 8 weeks after exiting from LN. Callus survival after cryopreservation was significantly affected by the concentration and duration of the treatment with ABA-supplemented media. However, storage duration in LN did not have an impact on the callus survival rate. In the present study, the highest survival rate (45.79%) was obtained in both treatments of 20 days preculture on medium containing 2 mg l− 1 ABA following 2 h desiccation-one day storage in LN and 2.5 h desiccation-thirty days storage in LN.Key messageThe desiccation method with the help of ABA and sucrose was an effective method in the successful cryopreservation of Corylus avellana L. callus.

Elicitation effect of silver nano particles (AgNPs) and triggering of defence system by production of hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) as a signaling molecule in the regulation of the activity of stress-related enzymes and production of Taxol was evaluated in suspension- cultured hazel cells ( Corylus avellana L.). The cells were treated with different concentrations of AgNPs (0, 2.5, 5, and 10 ppm), in their logarithmic growth phase (d7) and were harvested after 1 week. Treatment of hazel cells with AgNPs decreased the viability of the cells. Also the results showed that while the activity of certain radical scavenging enzymes in particular of catalase and peroxidase increased by 2.5 and 5 ppm AgNPs, the activity of superoxide dismutase decreased in these treatments. The highest activity of ascorbate peroxidase was observed in 10 ppm AgNPs treatments. This treatment also showed the highest contents of H 2 O 2 and phenolic compounds, as well as the highest activity of phenylalanine ammonialyase. According to the results, 5 ppm AgNPs was the best concentration for elicitation of hazel cells to produce efficient amounts of H 2 O 2 in order for stimulation of antioxidant defence system, production of Taxol at the highest capacity of the cells, meanwhile reserving their viability.

European hazelnut ( Corylus avellana ) is a diploid (2n = 22), monecious and wind-pollinated species, extensively cultivated for its nuts. Turkey is the world-leading producer of hazelnut, supplying 70–80% of the world’s export capacity. Hazelnut is mostly grown in the Black Sea Region, and maintained largely through clonal propagation. Understanding the genetic variation between hazelnut varieties, and defining variety-specific and disease resistance-associated alleles, would facilitate hazelnut breeding in Turkey. Widely grown varieties ‘Karafındık’ (2), ‘Sarıfındık’ (5), and ‘Yomra’ (2) were collected from Akçakoca in the west, while ‘Tombul’ (8), ‘Çakıldak’ (3), ‘Mincane’ (2), ‘Allahverdi’ (2), ‘Sivri’ (4), and ‘Palaz’ (5) were collected from Ordu and Giresun provinces in the east (numbers in parentheses indicate sample sizes for each variety). Powdery mildew resistant and susceptible hazelnut genotypes were collected from the field gene bank and heavily infected orchards in Giresun. Every individual was subjected to double digest restriction enzyme-associated DNA sequencing (ddRAD-seq) and a RADtag library was created. RADtags were aligned to the ‘Tombul’ reference genome, and Stacks software used to identify polymorphisms. 101 private and six common alleles from nine hazelnut varieties, four private from resistants and only one from susceptible were identified for diagnosis of either a certain hazelnut variety or powdery mildew resistance. Phylogenetic analysis and population structure calculations indicated that ‘Mincane’, ‘Sarıfındık’, ‘Tombul’, ‘Çakıldak’, and ‘Palaz’ were genetically close to each other; however, individuals within every varietal group were found in different sub-populations. Our findings indicated that years of clonal propagation of some preferred varieties across the Black Sea Region has resulted in admixed sub-populations and great genetic diversity within each variety. This impedes the development of a true breeding variety. For example, ‘Tombul’ is the most favored Turkish variety because of its high quality nuts, but an elite ‘Tombul’ line does not yet exist. This situation continues due to the lack of a breed protection program for commercially valuable hazelnut varieties. This study provides molecular markers suitable for establishing such a program.

Within the pattern of volatiles released by food products (volatilome), potent odorants are bio-active compounds that trigger aroma perception by activating a complex array of odor receptors (ORs) in the regio olfactoria. Their informative role is fundamental to select optimal post-harvest and storage conditions and preserve food sensory quality. This study addresses the volatile metabolome from high-quality hazelnuts (Corylus avellana L.) from the Ordu region (Turkey) and Tonda Romana from Italy, and investigates its evolution throughout the production chain (post-harvest, industrial storage, roasting) to find functional correlations between technological strategies and product quality. The volatile metabolome is analyzed by headspace solid-phase microextration combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Dedicated pattern recognition, based on 2D data (targeted fingerprinting), is used to mine analytical outputs, while principal component analysis (PCA), Fisher ratio, hierarchical clustering, and analysis of variance are used to find decision makers among the most informative chemicals. Low-temperature drying (18–20 °C) has a decisive effect on quality; it correlates negatively with bacteria and mold metabolic activity, nut viability, and lipid oxidation products (2-methyl-1-propanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 2-ethyl-1-hexanol, 2-octanol, 1-octen-3-ol, hexanal, octanal and (E)-2-heptanal). Protective atmosphere storage (99% N2–1% O2) effectively limits lipid oxidation for 9–12 months after nut harvest. The combination of optimal drying and storage preserves the aroma potential; after roasting at different shelf-lives, key odorants responsible for malty and buttery (2- and 3-methylbutanal, 2,3-butanedione and 2,3-pentanedione), earthy (methylpyrazine, 2-ethyl-5-methyl pyrazine and 3-ethyl-2,5-dimethyl pyrazine) and caramel-like and musty notes (2,5-dimethyl-4-hydroxy-3(2H)-furanone - furaneol and acetyl pyrrole) show no significant variation.

Hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) is a popular tree nut worldwide, and in recent years, the production of hazelnuts has increased in many countries due to large investments improving agricultural techniques and the selection of new cultivars. Turkey, the leader of global hazelnut production, has shown that supply can strongly fluctuate, which leads to peak prices and market instability. In this review, an overview of the morphological traits, nutritional value, fatty acid composition, tocopherols, and future prospects of hazelnut production are described. Furthermore, information regarding hazelnuts from different geographical origins (Chile, Croatia, Iran, Italy, Oregon (US), Poland, Portugal, Serbia, Spain, and Turkey; total of 22 cultivars) to enhance the utilization of hazelnut cultivars from newly producing orchards and origins is comprehensively summarized.

Corylus avellana L. stands as one of the world’s most coveted nuts, thriving in the wild within the Fandoguloo forests of Iran’s Ardabil province and showcasing remarkable diversity in this region. To assess the distribution of genetic diversity within and between populations, 78 genotypes from various regions of Iran, including Ardabil, Arasbaran, and Miyaneh, underwent analysis using Start Codon Targeted (SCoT) polymorphism. Additionally, the phytochemical characteristics of Corylus avellana L., such as ash, taxol, total phenol, palmitic acid, fiber, palmitoleic acid, carbohydrate, stearic acid, flavonoid, oleic acid, linoleic acid, fat, antioxidant compounds, and total phenol, were examined. The results revealed that 15 SCoT primers amplified 165 polymorphic polymerase chain reaction fragments, with the SC3 and SC21 primers exhibiting the highest and lowest polymorphic information content, respectively. The calculated marker index for the primers ranged from 2.6 to 6.1. The Ardabil population boasted the highest allele frequency, with a 100% polymorphism rate across all studied primers. The primers SC21, SC20, and SC5 showed the highest polymorphic rates among the populations with 14 fragments. The gene flow within populations was 0.4, whereas the gene flow between populations was 0.7, and the fixation index (Fst) was 0.4. This research underscores the effectiveness of the SCoT marker in gauging the genetic diversity of C. avellana , making it a promising foundation for future research on the population and evolutionary genetics of this economically significant species.