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Central government aims to stimulate the ejficiency and technical change c/public organizations. However, government primarily focuses on the institutions that deliver final public services, but not on the policy making institutions. This article analyses the productivity of central government departments (CGDs). From bureaucratic theory we hypothesize that productivity of these CGDs are low. In order to measure efficiency and technical change we estimate an average cost function based on data of Dutch individual CGDs during the period 2012-2019. The dataset consists of data on various services provided, resource usage and efficiency determinants. The cost function is estimated by a mixed-ejfect non-linear least squares method. The outcomes show that there are large efficiency deferences among CGDs. It is also striking that technical change of the CGDs is nonexistent over time, probably due to a lack of innovative behaviour; unwieldy bureaucracies and increasingly complex paperwork.

The optimal predictive, preventive, corrective and opportunistic maintenance policies play an important role in the success of sustainable maintenance operations. This study discusses a new energy efficiency-related maintenance policy optimization method, which is based on failure data and status information from both the physical system and the digital twin-based discrete event simulation. The study presents the functional model, the mathematical model and the solution algorithm. The maintenance optimization method proposed in this paper is made up of four main phases: computation of energy consumption based on the levelized cost of energy, computation of GHG emission, computation of value determination equations and application of the Howard’s policy iteration techniques. The approach was tested with a scenario analysis, where different electricity generation sources were taken into consideration. The computational results validated the optimization method and show that optimized maintenance policies can lead to an average of 38% cost reduction regarding energy consumption related costs. Practical implications of the proposed model and method regard the possibility of finding optimal maintenance policies that can affect the energy consumption and emissions from the operation and maintenance of manufacturing systems.

\"A chronicle of one of the most unusual series of events in the history of medicine, this book tells the story a group of men and women clinicians, administrators, frontline workers, trustees, and leaders blessed with vision, courage, and a relentless determination to improve. It is the story of a medical center transformed. Ultimately, it is the story of a new and possibly better way to take on the challenge we face in the United States today to provide superb medical care to our people while at the same time controlling costs\"--Provided by publisher.

Forests of the Americas and the Caribbean are undergoing rapid change as human populations increase and land use intensifies. We applied the IUCN Red List of Ecosystems (RLE) criteria and simple cost‐efficiency analyses to provide the first regional perspective on patterns of relative risk integrated across multiple threats. Based on six indicators of ecosystem distribution and function, we find that 80% of the forest types and 85% of the current forest area is potentially threatened based on RLE criteria. Twelve forest types are Critically Endangered due to past or projected future deforestation, and Tropical Dry Forests and Woodland have highest threat scores. To efficiently reduce risks to forest ecosystems at national levels, scenario analyses show that countries would need to combine large forest protection measures with focused actions, tailored to their sociopolitical context, to help restore ecological functions in a selection of threatened forest types.

Many ecosystem services are public goods whose provision depends on the spatial pattern of land use. The pattern of land use is often determined by the decisions of multiple private landowners. Increasing the provision of ecosystem services, though beneficial for society as a whole, may be costly to private landowners. A regulator interested in providing incentives to landowners for increased provision of ecosystem services often lacks complete information on landowners’ costs. The combination of spatially dependent benefits and asymmetric cost information means that the optimal provision of ecosystem services cannot be achieved using standard regulatory or payment for ecosystem services approaches. Here we show that an auction that sets payments between landowners and the regulator for the increased value of ecosystem services with conservation provides incentives for landowners to truthfully reveal cost information, and allows the regulator to implement the optimal provision of ecosystem services, even in the case with spatially dependent benefits and asymmetric information.

Wood borers and bark beetles are among the most serious forest pests worldwide. Many such species have become successful invaders, often causing substantial, costly damages to forests. Here we design and evaluate the cost-efficiency of a trap-based surveillance program for early detection of wood borers and bark beetles at risk of establishing in New Zealand. Although costly, a surveillance program could lead to earlier detection of newly established forest pests, thereby increasing the likelihood of successful eradication and reducing control costs and damages from future invasions. We develop a mechanistic bioeconomic model that relates surveillance intensity (i.e., trap density) and invasion size to probabilities of detection and control. It captures the dynamics of invasive species establishment, spread, and damages to urban and plantation forests. We employ the model to design surveillance programs that provide the greatest net present benefits. Our findings suggest that implementing a surveillance trapping program for invasive wood borers and bark beetles would provide positive net benefits under all scenarios considered. The economically optimal trapping strategy calls for a very high investment in surveillance: about 10 000 traps in each year of the 30-year surveillance program, at a present value cost of US$54 million. This strategy provides a 39% reduction in costs compared with no surveillance, corresponding to an expected net present benefit of approximately US$300 million. Although surveillance may provide the greatest net benefits when implemented at relatively high levels, our findings also show that even low levels of surveillance are worthwhile: the economic benefits from surveillance more than offset the rising costs associated with increasing trapping density. Our results also show that the cost-efficiency of surveillance varies across target regions because of differences in pest introduction and damage accumulation rates across locales, with greater surveillance warranted in areas closer to at-risk, high-value resources and in areas that receive more imported goods that serve as an invasion pathway.

The effective ionic capacities of strong cation ion-exchange resins were investigated and compared using conditions similar to those found in white goods, in order to establish behavioral differences between commercial products and evaluate their capacity in a broader business context. Nine different products of equivalent TDS (Technical Data Sheet) capacity were observed to examine their differences in approximately real-life conditions. For a broader context of applicability analysis, besides the absolute ionic operating capacity, the following additional factors were included in the evaluation: the standard deviation in the resins’ performances and their relative prices. A complete method for material applicability evaluation was hereby proposed and shown to offer cost factor benefits of up to 21.1% within the range of products examined, in comparison to a cost-only evaluation for equivalent materials.

Cash-based interventions (CBIs) increasingly are being used to deliver humanitarian assistance and there is growing interest in the cost-effectiveness of cash transfers for preventing undernutrition in emergency contexts. The objectives of this study were to assess the costs, cost-efficiency and costeffectiveness in achieving nutrition outcomes of three CBIs in southern Pakistan: a ‘double cash’ (DC) transfer, a ‘standard cash’ (SC) transfer and a ‘fresh food voucher’ (FFV) transfer. Cash and FFVs were provided to poor households with children aged 6–48 months for 6 months in 2015. The SC and FFV interventions provided $14 monthly and the DC provided $28 monthly. Cost data were collected via institutional accounting records, interviews, programme observation, document review and household survey. Cost-effectiveness was assessed as cost per case of wasting, stunting and disability-adjusted life year (DALY) averted. Beneficiary costs were higher for the cash groups than the voucher group. Net total cost transfer ratios (TCTRs) were estimated as 1.82 for DC, 2.82 for SC and 2.73 for FFV. Yet, despite the higher operational costs, the FFV TCTR was lower than the SC TCTR when incorporating the participation cost to households, demonstrating the relevance of including beneficiary costs in cost-efficiency estimations. The DC intervention achieved a reduction in wasting, at $ 4865 per case averted; neither the SC nor the FFV interventions reduced wasting. The cost per case of stunting averted was $1290 for DC, $882 for SC and $883 for FFV. The cost per DALY averted was $ 641 for DC, $434 for SC and $563 for FFV without discounting or age weighting. These interventions are highly cost-effective by international thresholds. While it is debatable whether these resource requirements represent a feasible or sustainable investment given low health expenditures in Pakistan, these findings may provide justification for continuing Pakistan’s investment in national social safety nets. On recourt de plus en plus aux interventions axées sur les transferts monétaires (CBI) pour fournir une aide humanitaire et l’on s’intéresse davantage à la rentabilité des transferts monétaires pour prévenir la dénutrition dans les situations d’urgence. Les objectifs de la présente étude étaient d’évaluer les coûts et la rentabilité des résultats nutritionnels de trois CBI dans le sud du Pakistan: un virement «double caisse» (DC), un virement «cash standard» (SC) et un virement en «bons d’aliments frais» (FFV). En 2015, des espèces et des bons FFV ont été fournis pendant 6 mois aux ménages démunis avec des enfants âgés de 6 à 48 mois. Les interventions SC et FFV fournissaient 14 $par mois tandis que les DC pourvoyaient 28 $par mois. Les données sur les coûts ont été recueillies au moyen de registres comptables institutionnels, d’entrevues, d’observations de programmes, d’examens de documents et d’enquêtes auprès des ménages. Le rapport coût-efficacité a été évalué en fonction du coût par cas de consomption, de retard de croissance et d’année de vie ajustée sur l’incapacité (DALY) évités. Les coûts des bénéficiaires étaient plus élevés dans les groupes recevant de l’argent liquide en comparaison au groupe bénéficiant de bons. Les ratios de transfert total des coûts nets (TCTR) ont été estimés à 1, 82 pour les DC; 2, 82 pour les SC et 2, 73 pour les FFV. Cependant, malgré les coûts d’exploitation plus élevés, le FFV TCTR était plus bas que le SC TCTR lorsqu’il intégrait le coût de participation aux frais des ménages, démontrant ainsi la pertinence d’inclure les frais des bénéficiaires dans les estimations de rentabilité. L’intervention DC a permis de réduire la consomption, à raison de 4865 $par cas évité; ni les interventions SC, ni les interventions FFV n’ont permis de réduire la consomption. Le coût par cas de retard de croissance évité était de 1290 $pour les DC; 882 $pour les SC et 883 $pour les FFV. The cost per DALY averted was $641 for DC, $434 for SC and $563 for FFV without discounting or age weighting. These interventions are highly costeffective by international thresholds. While it is debatable whether these resource requirements represent a feasible or sustainable investment given low health expenditures in Pakistan, these findings may provide justification for continuing Pakistan’s investment in national social safety nets. Le coût par DALY évité était de 641 $pour les DC; 434 $pour les SC et 563 $pour les FFV sans actualisation ou pondération selon l’ âge. Ces interventions sont très rentables selon les normes des seuils internationaux. Bien que l’on puisse se poser la question de savoir si ces besoins en ressources représentent un investissement réalisable ou durable compte tenu des modiques dépenses de santé du Pakistan, ces conclusions peuvent justifier le fait que le Pakistan continue d’investir dans des systèmes nationaux de sécurité sociale. 现金干预 （CBIs） 越来越多地用于人道主义援助, 在紧急情况 下采用现金支付预防营养不足的成本效果也逐渐成为研究关 注点。本研究的目的是评估巴基斯坦南部三种CBIs在实现营 养结局方面的成本、成本效率和成本效果。这三种CBIs分别 是双倍现金支付 （DC）、标准现金支付 （SC） 和免费食品券 （FFV） 。2015年向家中有648月龄儿童的贫困家庭提供现金 和FFVs, 为期6个月。SC和FFV干预每月提供14美元, DC每月 提供28美元。通过机构会计记录、访谈、项目观察、文件回 顾和家庭调查收集成本数据。成本效果为每避免一例消瘦、 发育迟缓和失能调整生命年 （DALY） 的成本。现金组的受益 人成本高于食品券组。DC、SC和FFV的净总成本支付比 （TCTR） 分别为1.82、2.82和2.73。尽管FFV的运行成本较 高, 在计入家庭参与成本时, 其TCTR低于SC, 显示有必要将受 益人成本计入成本效率。DC干预减少了消瘦, 每避免一例消 瘦成本为4865美元；SC和FFV干预都未能减少消瘦。DC、SC 和FFV每避免一例发育迟缓的成本分别为1290美元、882美元 和883美元；每DALY的成本分别为641美元、434美元和563 美元, 未考虑折现或年龄权重。以国际标准来看, 这三种干预 具有很高的成本效果。尽管在巴基斯坦低卫生支出的背景下, 上述干预的资源需求是否可行或可持续还存在争议, 本研究发 现可为巴基斯坦继续投入国家社会保障体系提供积极证据。 Las intervenciones basadas en dinero en efectivo (IBDEs) están siendo usadas cada vez más para entregar ayuda humanitaria y existe un creciente interés en la relación costo-efectividad de las transferencias en dinero en efectivo para prevenir la desnutrición en contextos de emergencia. Los objetivos de este estudio fueron evaluar los costos, la costo-eficiencia y la costo-efectividad para lograr los resultados nutricionales de tres IBDEs en el sur de Pakistán: una transferencia de ‘efectivo doble’ (ED), una transferencia ‘efectivo-estándar’ (EE) y una transferencia de ‘vale de comida fresca’ (VCF). El dinero en efectivo y los VCFs fueron proporcionados a hogares pobres con niños de 6-48 meses durante 6 meses en 2015. Las intervenciones EE y VCF proporcionaron $14 mensuales y la ED proporcionó $28 mensuales. Los datos de costos fueron recolectados por medio de registros de contaduría institucionales, entrevistas, observación de programa, revisión de documentos y encuesta de hogar. La costo-efectividad se evaluó como el costo por caso de emaciación evitado, retraso del crecimiento evitado y año de vida ajustados por discapacidad (AVAD) evitado. Los costos de los beneficiarios fueron mayores para los grupos de dinero en efectivo que para el grupo de vale. El costo total neto de las relaciones de transferencia (CTRTs) se estimaron como 1.82 para ED, 2.82 para EE y 2.73 para VCF. Sin embargo, a pesar de los mayores costos de operación, el CTRT para VCF fue inferior al CTRT para EE al incorporar el costo de participación en los hogares demostrando la importancia de incluir los costos de los beneficiarios en las estimaciones del costo-eficiencia. La intervención de ED logró una reducción en la emaciación, a $4865 por caso evitado; ni el EE ni las intervenciones por VCF redujeron la emaciación. El costo por caso de retraso en el crecimiento evitado fue de $1290 por ED, $882 por EE y $883 por VCF. El costo por AVAD evitado fue de $641 por ED, $434 por EE y $563 por VCF sin descontar o ponderar por edad. Estas intervenciones son altamente costo-efectivas por umbrales internacionales. Si bien es discutible si estas necesidades de recursos representan una inversión factible o sostenible dados los bajos gastos de salud en Pakistán, estos hallazgos pueden proporcionar una justificación para continuar la inversión en redes nacionales de seguridad social de Pakistán.