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The use of cyber operations during armed conflicts and the question of how international humanitarian law (IHL) applies to such operations have developed significantly over the past two decades. In their different roles in the Legal Division of the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the authors of this article have followed these developments closely and have engaged in governmental and non-governmental expert discussions on the subject. In this article, we analyze pertinent humanitarian, legal and policy questions. We first show that the use of cyber operations during armed conflict has become a reality of armed conflicts and is likely to be more prominent in the future. This development raises a number of concerns in today's increasingly cyber-reliant societies, in which malicious cyber operations risk causing significant disruption and harm to humans. Secondly, we present a brief overview of multilateral discussions on the legal and normative framework regulating cyber operations during armed conflicts, looking in particular at various arguments around the applicability of IHL to cyber operations during armed conflict and the relationship between IHL and the UN Charter. We emphasize that in our view, there is no question that cyber operations during armed conflicts, or cyber warfare, are regulated by IHL – just as is any weapon, means or methods of warfare used by a belligerent in a conflict, whether new or old. Thirdly, we focus the main part of this article on how IHL applies to cyber operations. Analyzing the most recent legal positions of States and experts, we revisit some of the most salient debates of the past decade, such as which cyber operations amount to an “attack” as defined in IHL and whether civilian data enjoys similar protection to “civilian objects”. We also explore the IHL rules applicable to cyber operations other than attacks and the special protection regimes for certain actors and infrastructure, such as medical facilities and humanitarian organizations.

One of the most significant issues facing internet users nowadays is malware. Polymorphic malware is a new type of malicious software that is more adaptable than previous generations of viruses. Polymorphic malware constantly modifies its signature traits to avoid being identified by traditional signature-based malware detection models. To identify malicious threats or malware, we used a number of machine learning techniques. A high detection ratio indicated that the algorithm with the best accuracy was selected for usage in the system. As an advantage, the confusion matrix measured the number of false positives and false negatives, which provided additional information regarding how well the system worked. In particular, it was demonstrated that detecting harmful traffic on computer systems, and thereby improving the security of computer networks, was possible using the findings of malware analysis and detection with machine learning algorithms to compute the difference in correlation symmetry (Naive Byes, SVM, J48, RF, and with the proposed approach) integrals. The results showed that when compared with other classifiers, DT (99%), CNN (98.76%), and SVM (96.41%) performed well in terms of detection accuracy. DT, CNN, and SVM algorithms’ performances detecting malware on a small FPR (DT = 2.01%, CNN = 3.97%, and SVM = 4.63%,) in a given dataset were compared. These results are significant, as malicious software is becoming increasingly common and complex.

In July 2017, China’s State Council released the country’s strategy for developing artificial intelligence (AI), entitled ‘New Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan’ (新一代人工智能发展规划). This strategy outlined China’s aims to become the world leader in AI by 2030, to monetise AI into a trillion-yuan (ca. 150 billion dollars) industry, and to emerge as the driving force in defining ethical norms and standards for AI. Several reports have analysed specific aspects of China’s AI policies or have assessed the country’s technical capabilities. Instead, in this article, we focus on the socio-political background and policy debates that are shaping China’s AI strategy. In particular, we analyse the main strategic areas in which China is investing in AI and the concurrent ethical debates that are delimiting its use. By focusing on the policy backdrop, we seek to provide a more comprehensive and critical understanding of China’s AI policy by bringing together debates and analyses of a wide array of policy documents.

This book examines how states integrate cyber capabilities with other instruments of power to achieve foreign policy outcomes. Given North Korea’s use of cyber intrusions to threaten the international community and extort funds for its elites, Chinese espionage and the theft of government records through the Office of Personal Management (OPM) hack, and the Russian hack on the 2016 US election, this book is a timely contribution to debates about power and influence in the 21st century. Its goal is to understand how states apply cyber means to achieve political ends, a topic speculated and imagined, but investigated with very little analytical rigor. Following on Valeriano and Maness’s (2015) book, Cyber War versus Cyber Realities: Cyber Conflict in the International System, this new study explores how states apply cyber strategies, using empirical evidence and key theoretical insights largely missed by the academic and strategy community. It investigates cyber strategies in their integrated and isolated contexts, demonstrating that they are useful to managing escalation and sending ambiguous signals, but generally they fail to achieve coercive effect.

Cyberspace is an integration of cyber physical system components that integrates computation, networking, physical processes, embedded computers and network monitors which uses feedback loops for controlling the processes where the computations are affected by processes and vice versa. More general, cyber physical systems include all equipments operated on preprogrammed instructions ranging from simple electronic devices to the ultra-modern warfare equipments along with life saving devices. Active cyber-attacks can cause cyber warfare situations by disrupting an entire community of people, which in turn raises an emergency situation to the nation. Thus, cyber warfare is a major threat to the nation at large. In this paper, we analyze the various aspects of cyber warfare situations and a survey on ongoing attacks, defense and cyber forensics strategies in that field. Internet of Things (IoT) is an emerging computing area which enables Machine to Machine communication in cyber physical systems. An attack on IoT causes major issues to the security on the devices and thus, the various threats and attacks on IoT are analyzed here. Overall monitoring and data acquisition in cyber physical systems is done by Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition systems and are mainly targeted by the attackers in order to leave the cyberspace applications not functioning. Therefore, the various threats, attacks and research issues pertaining to the cyberspace are surveyed in this paper along with a few research issues and challenges that are to be solved in the area of cyber warfare.

Cyberattacks are more destructive than ever, but your C-suite can stop them. This book tells you how. Cyberattacks are worse now than ever before. To defeat cybercriminals, companies must focus on the low-hanging fruits of cybersecurity. It's all about the basics. Companies laid low by ransomware failed to practice good cyber hygiene by recklessly allowing weak or reused passwords, not turning on multifactor authentication, or neglecting to install patches to known software vulnerabilities. Adding insult to grievous injury, many companies failed to mitigate cyber doom by not encrypting their devices, not implementing a data backup plan, or the mother of all blunders, not training their workforce on basic cyber hygiene. Worse still, hidden risks abound for the unwary. A devastating cyberattack is just moments away when C-suite leaders close their eyes to the hazards of shadow IT, data offshoring, mobile devices, and social media. Mobilizing the C-suite: Waging War Against Cyberattacks was written to galvanize C-suite leaders into deploying the basic cybersecurity controls vital to defeating cyberattacks, and to support frontline cybersecurity professionals with companywide cyber hygiene training. Most importantly, the book was written to introduce real-world cybersecurity principles to college students—if our future generation of company leaders enter the C-suite with cyber-savvy, then destructive cyberattacks are not a foregone conclusion.

The evolution of electrical power systems into smart grids has brought about significant advancements in electricity generation, transmission, and utilization. These cutting-edge grids have shown potential as an effective way to maximize energy efficiency, manage resources effectively, and enhance overall reliability and sustainability. However, with the integration of complex technologies and interconnected systems inherent to smart grids comes a new set of safety and security challenges that must be addressed. First, this paper provides an in-depth review of the key considerations surrounding safety and security in smart grid environments, identifying potential risks, vulnerabilities, and challenges associated with deploying smart grid infrastructure within the context of the Internet of Things (IoT). In response, we explore both cryptographic and non-cryptographic countermeasures, emphasizing the need for adaptive, lightweight, and proactive security mechanisms. As a key contribution, we introduce a layered classification framework that maps smart grid attacks to affected components and defense types, providing a clearer structure for analyzing the impact of threats and responses. In addition, we identify current gaps in the literature, particularly in real-time anomaly detection, interoperability, and post-quantum cryptographic protocols, thus offering forward-looking recommendations to guide future research. Finally, we present the Multi-Layer Threat-Defense Alignment Framework, a unique addition that provides a methodical and strategic approach to cybersecurity planning by aligning smart grid threats and defenses across architectural layers.

Inserted in the context of an emerging theme in international relations, cyber conflicts, this article aims to show how the United States, in the Bush (son) and Barack Obama governments, have used the cyberpower, specifically \"cyberwar\" and cyber espionage, to achieve some goals of its foreign policy.

With ongoing cyber threats stemming from persistent hacking attempts, relentless efforts are being made to prevent such threats at their source. Recently, the concept of “zero trust”, introduced by the United States National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), has emerged as a promising approach in this regard. Zero Trust (ZT) is not a standalone security solution but rather a framework of concepts aimed at achieving a higher level of security. It provides a paradigm that outlines the fundamental philosophy, core principles, and operational guidelines for enhanced security. While the guiding principle of “Never Trust, Always Verify” has gained widespread acceptance, many corporate security managers remain uncertain about how to implement ZT effectively. To address this challenge, this paper presents a security network designed to align with the corporate sector’s concept of security architecture based on the principles of ZT. Furthermore, it proposes and verifies a method to strengthen security using Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Digital Rights Management (DRM). These technologies were selected because, among the various principles of Zero Trust architecture (ZTA), they effectively support centralized policy management and access control. This paper is expected to be effective in preventing related risks and contribute to building a more effective information security system that helps organizations combat increasingly sophisticated cyber threats.

Abstract In recent years, scholars, commentators and politicians have discussed the prospect of a ‘cyber security dilemma’. If states race to develop superior cyberattacks, how far might this escalate? Are state-led cyberattacks likely to provoke a full war? To address these related questions, I apply a multi-level Neoclassical Realist framework that progresses from systemic logic to an assessment of leader cues and cognition. This contributes much-needed coherence to debates about escalation and cyber warfare and demonstrates the framework’s utility for addressing contemporary and evolving problems in international affairs. The framework reveals that, according to both a systemic and societal cue analysis, fears regarding unchecked escalation from state competition in cyberspace to kinetic warfare are largely unfounded. Nevertheless, it also points toward one caveat and direction for further research in that cyber warfare directed at foreign leaders’ political survival may be unexpectedly provocative in a way not currently addressed by escalation models.