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Information warfare in the age of cyber conflict
This book examines the shape, sources and dangers of information warfare (IW) as it pertains to military, diplomatic and civilian stakeholders.
Cyber warfare and information warfare are different beasts. Both concern information, but where the former does so exclusively in its digitized and operationalized form, the latter does so in a much broader sense: with IW, information itself is the weapon. The present work aims to help scholars, analysts and policymakers understand IW within the context of cyber conflict. Specifically, the chapters in the volume address the shape of influence campaigns waged across digital infrastructure and in the psychology of democratic populations in recent years by belligerent state actors, from the Russian Federation to the Islamic Republic of Iran. In marshalling evidence on the shape and evolution of IW as a broad-scoped phenomenon aimed at societies writ large, the authors in this book present timely empirical investigations into the global landscape of influence operations, legal and strategic analyses of their role in international politics, and insightful examinations of the potential for democratic process to overcome pervasive foreign manipulation.
This book will be of much interest to students of cybersecurity, national security, strategic studies, defence studies and International Relations in general.
eBook
China's digital nationalism
\"Our current understanding of fake news and cyber warfare aside, many people still believe that the internet represents a cosmopolitan ideal over which the flow of diverse information educates and empowers users. The Chinese case defies these expectations. Nationalism, in China as much as elsewhere, is today adopted, filtered, transformed, enhanced, and accelerated through digital networks. And as we have increasingly seen, nationalism in digital spheres interacts in complicated ways with nationalism \"on the ground\". If we are to understand the social and political complexities of the 21st century, we need to ask: what happens to nationalism when it goes digital? In China's Digital Nationalism, Florian Schneider explores the issue by looking at digital China first hand, exploring what search engines, online encyclopedias, websites, hyperlink networks, and social media can tell us about the way that different actors construct and manage a crucial topic in contemporary Chinese politics: the protracted historical relationship with neighboring Japan. Using two cases, the infamous Nanjing Massacre of 1937 and the recent disputes over islands in the East China Sea, Schneider shows how various stakeholders in China construct networks and deploy power to shape nationalism for their own ends. These dynamics provide crucial lessons on how nation-states adapt to the shifting terrain of the digital age, and they highlight how digital nationalism is today an emergent property of complex communication networks\"-- Provided by publisher.
Book
The application of the principle of distinction in the cyber context: A Chinese perspective
Up to now, the Chinese government has only made very general comments on the application of international humanitarian law to cyberspace. There are indeed Chinese academic papers concerning this issue, but the discussion of the principle of distinction is limited both in length and in academic depth. Compared with the West, research by Chinese scholars on this topic is still in a relatively preliminary stage. At present, there is no specific deconstruction or clarification of the application of the principle of distinction in cyberspace in Chinese academia. As the first paper written by Chinese scholars specifically devoted to this question, this piece provides a different perspective by injecting the positions of Chinese officials and the views of Chinese scholars. The authors aim to clarify whether the existing rules are still completely applicable in the cyber context, and if needed, to find out what kind of improvements and clarifications can be made. Weighing in on these debates, we argue that despite the potential technical challenges and uncertainties, the principle of distinction should be applied to cyberspace. It should also be carefully re-examined and clarified from the standpoint of preventing over-militarization and maximizing the protection of the interests of civilians. For human targets, the elements of combatant status identified in customary international law and relevant treaties are not well suited to the digital battlefield. Nevertheless, cyber combatants are still obligated to distinguish themselves from civilians. In applying the principle of distinction, we argue that it makes more sense to focus on substantive elements over formal elements such as carrying arms openly or having a fixed distinctive sign recognizable at a distance. In interpreting “direct participation in hostilities”, the threshold of harm requires an objective likelihood instead of mere subjective intention; the belligerent nexus should be confirmed, and the causal link should be proximate. Applying the “cyber kill chain” model by analogy helps us to grasp the whole process of direct participation in hostilities during cyber warfare. For non-human targets, all military objectives must cumulatively fulfil both the “effective contribution” and “definite military advantage” criteria, which are equally indispensable. The same requirements apply to dual-use objects. Furthermore, certain data should fall within the ambit of civilian objects.
Journal Article
Environmental Activism, Social Networks and the Internet
Social networks and the internet both have a substantial individual effect on environmental activism in China. In this article, we speculate that social linking patterns between environmental actors, which often facilitate activism on the ground, may also exist in cyberspace in the form of an online network. The article addresses the following empirical questions. Does such an online network exist? If so, who are the constituent actors? Are these the same actors observed on the ground? In addressing these questions the article aims to contribute to the growing debate on the implications of the internet for the potential emergence of social movements in China.
Journal Article
WHO ARE THE INFLUENTIALS IN CHINA’S CYBERSPACE AND WHAT DO THEY SAY ABOUT THE ISSUE OF SINO-JAPANESE RELATIONS?
This research note explores an increasingly prominent, but often neglected, communication group in China’s cyberspace—the online “influential” (big Vs or verified users)—who shape public perceptions, including on foreign policy issues. Examining threads on Sino-Japanese relations on Weibo reveals a diverse ecosystem that includes not only established media agencies and government agencies, but public intellectuals, whose role and presence are quite central. An analysis of the content of posts finds that influentials have similarly diverse viewpoints on Sino-Japanese relations; some have broken with the conflict-focused discourses that have prevailed on Weibo, reflecting a competing narrative espousing the need for greater pragmatism towards Japan. The findings call into question the argument that social media necessarily trends toward greater nationalism.
Journal Article
Chinese cybersecurity and defense
Cyberdefense has become, over the past five years, a major issue on the international scene. China, by the place it occupies, is the subject of attention: it is observed, criticized, and designated by many states as a major player in the global cyber-insecurity. The United States is building their cyberdefense strategy against what they call the \"Chinese threat.\" It is therefore important to better understand today's challenges related to cyber dimension in regard of the rise of China. Contributions from international researchers provide cross perspectives on China, its strategies and policies for cybersecurity and cyberdefense. These issues have now gained major strategic dimension:
Is Cyberspace changing the scene of international relations?
How China does apprehend cybersecurity and cyberdefense?
What are the issues, challenges?
What is the role of China in the global cyberspace?
eBook
Mutual Perceptions in South Korea-China Relations: The Need for Creative Arguing
We attribute the negative perceptions between South Korea and China to the absence of real argumentative interaction. Argumentative interaction is a social process that seeks mutual understanding through persuasive and noncoercive action. The argumentative process helps state actors to minimize their negative perceptions and to reach mutual understanding— an evolutionary process that leads to perceptional change. In the case of South Korea and China, two conditions are known to instigate arguing: uncertainty and conscious efforts by both actors. The governments and elites of both states should take significant roles in seeking policy alternatives and in building a healthy cyberspace.
Journal Article
Cyber security
Cyber-attacks are changing our traditional understanding of strategic issues, such as territory, asymmetry, and deterrence. New Zealand’s response has been promising. The government has established new institutions to enhance cyber security and has put in place a national strategy that emphasises the diversity of actors involved. New international partnerships are also being developed in this area, including a recent agreement with the UK government on cyber security collaboration. Although progress has been made, many challenges remain, including rising tensions between the United States and China over cyber-attacks and the widespread development of offensive cyber warfare capabilities.
Journal Article
The U.S.-China Military Scorecard
A RAND study analyzed Chinese and U.S. military capabilities in two scenarios (Taiwan and the Spratly Islands) from 1996 to 2017, finding that trends in most, but not all, areas run strongly against the United States. While U.S. aggregate power remains greater than China’s, distance and geography affect outcomes. China is capable of challenging U.S. military dominance on its immediate periphery—and its reach is likely to grow in the years ahead.
eBook