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Although motivation is a central aspect of the practice of a physical activity, it is a challenging endeavour to predict an individual's level of motivation during the activity. The objective of this study was to assess the feasibility of measuring motivation through brain recording methods during physical activity, with a specific focus on cycling. The experiment employed the Effort Expenditure for Reward Task (EEfRT), a decision-making task based on effort and reward, conducted under two conditions: one involving cycling on an ergometer at moderate intensity and the other without cycling. The P300, an event-related potential linked to motivation, was recorded using electroencephalography. A total of 20 participants were recruited to complete the EEfRT, which involved making effort-based decisions of increasing difficulty in order to receive varying levels of monetary reward. The results demonstrated that the P300 amplitude was influenced by the act of cycling, exhibiting a reduction during the cycling session. This reduction may be explained by a reallocation of cognitive resources due to the exertion of physical effort, which is consistent with the transient hypofrontality theory. In terms of behaviour, participants demonstrated a tendency to make more challenging choices when the potential rewards were higher or the probability of gaining them was lower. This pattern was observed in both the cycling and non-cycling conditions. A positive correlation was identified between P300 amplitude and the proportion of difficult choices, particularly under conditions of low reward probability. This suggests that P300 may serve as a neural marker of motivation. The study demonstrates the feasibility of using electroencephalography to monitor motivation during exercise in real-time, with potential applications in rehabilitation settings. However, further research is required to refine the design and explore the effects of different exercise types on motivation.

This study compared the impact of two polarized training programs (POL) on aerobic capacity in well-trained (based on maximal oxygen uptake and training experience) female cyclists. Each 8-week POL program consisted of sprint interval training (SIT) consisting of 8-12 repetitions, each lasting 30 seconds at maximal intensity, high-intensity interval training (HIIT) consisting of 4-6 repetitions, each lasting 4 minutes at an intensity of 90-100% maximal aerobic power, and low-intensity endurance training (LIT) lasting 150-180 minutes with intensity at the first ventilatory threshold. Training sessions were organized into 4-day microcycles (1st day-SIT, 2nd day-HIIT, 3rd day-LIT, and 4th day-active rest), that were repeated throughout the experiment. In the first POL program, exercise repetitions during SIT and HIIT training were performed with freely chosen cadence above 80 RPM (POL.sub.FC group, n = 12), while in the second POL program with low cadence 50-70 RPM (POL.sub.LC group, n = 12). Immediately before and after the 8-week POL intervention, participants performed an incremental test to measure maximal aerobic power (Pmax), power achieved at the second ventilatory threshold (VT2), maximal oxygen uptake (VO.sub.2 max), maximal pulmonary ventilation (VEmax), and gross efficiency (GE). Moreover, participants performed VO.sub.2 max verification test. Analysis of variance showed a repeated measures effect for Pmax (F = 21.62; [eta].sup.2 = 0.5; p = 0.00), VO.sub.2 max (F = 39.39; [eta].sup.2 = 0.64; p = 0.00) and VEmax (F = 5.99; [eta].sup.2 = 0.21; p = 0.02). A repeated measures x group mixed effect was demonstrated for Pmax (F = 4.99; [eta].sup.2 = 0.18; p = 0.03) and VO.sub.2 max (F = 6.67; [eta].sup.2 = 0.23; p = 0.02). Post-hoc Scheffe analysis showed that increase in Pmax were statistically significant only in POL.sub.LC group. The Friedman test showed that VT2 differed between repeated measures only in the POL.sub.LC group (X.sup.2 = 11; p = 0.001; W = 0.917). In conclusion, it was found that POL program where SIT and HIIT were performed at low cadence was more effective in improving aerobic capacity in well-trained female cyclists, than POL with SIT and HIIT performed at freely chosen cadence. This finding is a practical application for athletes and coaches in cycling, to consider not only the intensity and duration but also the cadence used during various interval training sessions.

\"Elite Performance in Youth Cycling showcases the latest cutting-edge research in youth cycling performance. Covering both endurance and sprint cycling events, the book explores the effect of cycling on the maturation of the body from childhood to adolescence, suggests long-term training and nutritional strategies for young athletes, and discusses issues such as injury prevention, long-term athlete health, and body image in endurance cyclists\"-- Provided by publisher.

Carrion provides a resource for a subset of animal species that deliver a critical ecosystem service by consuming dead animal matter and recycling its nutrients. A growing number of studies have also shown various effects of carrion on different plant and microbial communities. However, there has been no review of these studies to bring this information together and identify priority areas for future research. We review carrion ecology studies from the last two decades and summarise the range of spatial and temporal effects of carrion on soil nutrients, microbes, plants, arthropods, and vertebrates. We identify key knowledge gaps in carrion ecology, and discuss how closing these gaps can be achieved by focusing future research on the (1) different kinds of carrion resources, (2) interactions between different components of the carrion community, (3) the ways that ecosystem context can moderate carrion effects, and (4) considerations for carrion management. To guide this research, we outline a framework that builds on the 'ephemeral resource patch' concept, and helps to structure research questions that link localised effects of carrion with their consequences at landscape scales. This will enable improved characterisation of carrion as a unique resource pool, provide answers for land managers in a position to influence carrion availability, and establish the ways that carrion affects the dynamics of species diversity and ecological processes within landscapes.

With its low impact on the joints and high caloric burn rate, cycling is a great choice for anyone wanting to get (and stay) in shape. It is accessible to all fitness levels and allows for easy progression. At all levels, cycling demands extreme physical effort and stamina to power the bicycle and to maintain correct form and speed, especially if for an extended time. Most of the work is in pushing down on the pedal, which uses all of the muscles in the leg. Equally important are the supporting muscles, which support the upper body, provide balance, reduce fatigue and increase endurance. \"Anatomy of Cycling\" addresses all of these needs. The exercises are designed to work the wide range of muscles that come into play when cycling. All of them can be done at home using just seven items: a mat, a chair, a \"Bosu ball,\" a small medicine ball, a large Swiss Ball, a small roller and a large roller. The exercises are organized into four units: Flexibility Exercises Mostly stretches, these help to counteract stiffness and increase blood flow. Leg-Strengthening Exercises Legs power the bicycle and by pedaling faster, gain speed. Strength is essential to sprinting and hill-climbing skills. These weight-bearing exercises are also beneficial to bones, a benefit that a cycling-only regimen lacks. Core-Strengthening Exercises A strong core contributes to a fluid pedal stroke, energy efficiency and overall stability. Balance and Posture Exercises These exercises, including swimming, help to build back strength and improve stability, both helpful in counteracting the shoulder and lower back problems that trouble cyclists. \"Anatomy of Cycling\" also includes three pre-designed workouts -- Beginners, Intermediate and Advanced -- as well as seven specific workouts: Quadriceps-Strengthening, Healthy Back, Core-Stabilizing, Low-Impact, Stamina, Balancing and Postural. This is an essential reference for road cyclists and triathletes.

Background Evidence is mounting to suggest a causal relationship between the built environment and people’s physical activity behaviours, particularly active transport. The evidence base has been hindered to date by restricted consideration of cost and economic factors associated with built environment interventions, investigation of socioeconomic or ethnic differences in intervention effects, and an inability to isolate the effect of the built environment from other intervention types. The aims of this systematic review were to identify which environmental interventions increase physical activity in residents at the local level, and to build on the evidence base by considering intervention cost, and the differential effects of interventions by ethnicity and socioeconomic status. Methods A systematic database search was conducted in June 2015. Articles were eligible if they reported a quantitative empirical study (natural experiment or a prospective, retrospective, experimental, or longitudinal research) investigating the relationship between objectively measured built environment feature(s) and physical activity and/or travel behaviours in children or adults. Quality assessment was conducted and data on intervention cost and whether the effect of the built environment differed by ethnicity or socioeconomic status were extracted. Results Twenty-eight studies were included in the review. Findings showed a positive effect of walkability components, provision of quality parks and playgrounds, and installation of or improvements in active transport infrastructure on active transport, physical activity, and visits or use of settings. There was some indication that infrastructure improvements may predominantly benefit socioeconomically advantaged groups. Studies were commonly limited by selection bias and insufficient controlling for confounders. Heterogeneity in study design and reporting limited comparability across studies or any clear conclusions to be made regarding intervention cost. Conclusions Improving neighbourhood walkability, quality of parks and playgrounds, and providing adequate active transport infrastructure is likely to generate positive impacts on activity in children and adults. The possibility that the benefits of infrastructure improvements may be inequitably distributed requires further investigation. Opportunities to improve the quality of evidence exist, including strategies to improve response rates and representativeness, use of valid and reliable measurement tools, cost-benefit analyses, and adequate controlling for confounders.

Residential green space can have positive physiological effects on human health through various mechanisms, including reducing stress and/or depression or facilitating physical activity. Although green space has been consistently associated with improved birth outcomes in several studies, there has been limited study of its effect on other reproductive outcomes, including fertility. We examined associations between residential green space and fecundability, the per-cycle probability of conception. We analyzed data from 8,563 female participants enrolled between 2013 and 2019 in Pregnancy Study Online (PRESTO), a prospective preconception cohort study of North American couples attempting conception. Participants completed a baseline questionnaire on sociodemographic, behavioral, and reproductive factors, and bimonthly follow-up questionnaires for up to 12 months to ascertain pregnancies. Using geocoded addresses, we calculated residential green space exposure using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) within 50-, 100-, 250-, and buffers across multiple temporal scales: annual maximum, seasonal maximum, and seasonal mean. We used proportional probabilities regression models to estimate fecundability ratios (FRs), adjusting for sociodemographic, behavioral, and neighborhood characteristics. We also evaluated the extent to which associations were mediated by reductions in perceived stress or depressive symptoms and increased physical activity. When comparing the highest ( ) with the lowest ( ) NDVI exposures within , we observed positive associations in the annual maximum NDVI [FR: 1.33; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.06, 1.67] and seasonal maximum NDVI (FR: 1.19; 95% CI: 1.00, 1.41) models, but little association in the seasonal mean NDVI models (FR: 0.98; 95% CI: 0.73, 1.30). Restricted cubic splines showed evidence of nonlinearity in this association. Results were similar across buffer distances. Perceived stress, depressive symptoms, and physical activity explained of mediation across all NDVI metrics. In this cohort, greater residential green space was associated with a modest increase in fecundability. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10648.

Background Calcium-dependent protein kinases (CDPKs) have been shown to play important roles in various physiological processes, including plant growth and development, abiotic and biotic stress responses and plant hormone signaling in plants. Results In this study, we performed a bioinformatics analysis of the entire maize genome and identified 40 CDPK genes. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that 40 ZmCPKs can be divided into four groups. Most maize CDPK genes exhibited different expression levels in different tissues and developmental stages. Twelve CDPK genes were selected to respond to various stimuli, including salt, drought and cold, as well as ABA and H 2 O 2 . Expression analyses suggested that maize CDPK genes are important components of maize development and multiple transduction pathways. Conclusion Here, we present a genome-wide analysis of the CDPK gene family in maize for the first time, and this genomic analysis of maize CDPK genes provides the first step towards a functional study of this gene family in maize.