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Algal oil, rich in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and an environmentally sustainable source of ω‐3 fatty acids, is receiving increasing attention. In the present study, a novel approach combining ethanolysis with a 1,3‐specific immobilized lipase (Lipozyme® TL IM) and molecular distillation was investigated to increase the DHA content of algal oil. Algal oil with a 45.94% DHA content was mixed with ethanol, pumped into a column filled with Lipozyme® TL IM, and then circulated for 4 hr at room temperature. The ethanol was then recycled by vacuum distillation. At an evaporator temperature of 150°C, the residue was separated by molecular distillation into a heavy component enriched with DHA glycerides (in the form of triglyceride (TG), diglyceride (DG), and monoglyceride (MG)) and a light component enriched with palmitic acid (PA) and DHA ethyl ester (EE). As a result, 76.55% of the DHA from the algal oil was present in the heavy component, whose DHA content was 70.27%. DHA‐MG was collected in the heavy component mostly in the form of 1‐MG. Lipozyme® TL IM appeared to specifically target PA rather than DHA at the sn‐1(3) position. The Lipozyme® TL IM allowed 90.03% of the initial DHA yield to be retained after seven reaction cycles. Therefore, an eco‐friendly and simple method for increasing the DHA content in algal oil has been developed. Ethanolysis and molecular distillation were tandem to separate saturated oil from algal oil to increase the DHA content from 45.9% to 70.3%. We found that DHA monoglyceride and ethyl ester can be separated by molecular distillation. Lipozyme® TL IM might provide an ethanolysis specific to PA rather than DHA at the sn‐1(3) positions. The Lipozyme® TL IM allowed 90.03% of the initial DHA yield to be retained after seven reaction cycles.

This study investigated the effect of the catechins profile on the antioxidant activity of green tea extracts (GTEs) by comparing the antioxidant activity of an EGC-rich GTE (GTE1, catechin content: 58% EGC, 30.1% EGCG, 7.9% EC, and 3.9% ECG) and an EGCG-rich GTE (GTE2, catechin content: 60.6% EGCG, 17.7% EGC, 11.8% ECG, and 9.8% EC) in a DHA-rich oil. The effects of the individual catechins (EGC, EC, EGCG, and ECG) and reconstituted catechins mixtures (CatMix), prepared to contain the same amount of major catechins as in the GTEs, were also measured. All treatments (GTE1, CatMix1, GTE2, CatMix2, EGC250, EC250, EGCG250, and ECG250), each containing epistructured catechins at a concentration of 250 ppm, as well as the control (oil with no added antioxidant), were stored at 30 °C for 21 days with sampling intervals of 7 days. The antioxidant activity was assessed by measuring the peroxide value (PV) and p-anisidine value (p-AV) of oils. Changes in fatty acid content and catechins content were also monitored. Both GTEs enhanced the oxidative stability of the DHA-rich oil, but GTE1 demonstrated a stronger antioxidant activity than GTE2. No significant difference was observed between the PV of treatments with GTE1 and CatMix1 during storage, whereas the PV of oil with GTE2 was significantly higher than that with CatMix2 after 21 days. Among the individual catechins, EGC was the strongest antioxidant. Overall, the antioxidant activities of the extracts and catechins were observed in the decreasing order GTE1 ≈ EGC250 ≈ CatMix1 > GTE2 > EGCG250 ≈ CatMix2 > ECG250 > EC250. A significant change in fatty acid content was observed for the control and EC250 samples, and the catechins were most stable in GTE1-supplemented oil. Our results indicate that the EGC-rich GTE is a more potent antioxidant in DHA-rich oil than the EGCG-rich GTE.

Graphical Abstract Highlight Research Innovative Use of By-Products: The study explores the use of tuna eye by-products, a rich source of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), to reduce reliance on imported fish oil and promote sustainable utilization of fishery waste. Enhanced Extraction Methodology: Enzymatic extraction using papain at optimal concentrations significantly improves the yield and quality of tuna eye oil, achieving up to six times higher yield compared to other methods. Nutritional and Quality Benefits: The extracted oil demonstrated low Index of Atherogenicity (IA) and Index of Thrombogenicity (IT), indicating its potential as a heart-healthy dietary supplement, with DHA and EPA concentrations well preserved. Environmental and Safety Advantages: The enzymatic process is solvent-free, minimizing environmental impact and ensuring consumer safety, while also addressing challenges posed by extended sample storage during the COVID-19 pandemic. Abstract Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), a crucial omega-3 fatty acid, plays a vital role in neurodevelopment and cardiovascular health. Indonesia relies heavily on imported fish oil, despite its significant potential in underutilized by-products like tuna eyes. This study investigates the optimization of papain enzyme concentration for enzymatic extraction of DHA-rich oil from tuna eyes, aiming to enhance yield and maintain quality. Using 1% papain at 55°C for 1 hour, the optimized process achieved an oil yield of 8.59 ± 0.69%, six times higher than cold extraction without enzymes. The extracted oil exhibited high oxidative stability with low Index of Atherogenicity (IA: 0.38–0.40) and Index of Thrombogenicity (IT: 0.20–0.21), while DHA content remained well-preserved at 27.82%. This method also demonstrated the capability to maintain oil quality even after prolonged storage during the COVID-19 pandemic. Compared to conventional methods, enzymatic extraction provides a sustainable and efficient alternative by reducing chemical solvent use, minimizing environmental impact, and maximizing the utilization of fishery by-products. These findings offer a scalable solution for producing high-value omega-3 oils, contributing to global dietary needs and promoting sustainability in the fishery industry.

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is one of the most important omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, with proven health-promoting properties. However, oils with a very high content in DHA (DHAO) are extremely susceptible to oxidation, which affects shelf stability and limits incorporation in food products. Green tea extracts (GTE) are potential candidates for the protection of these oils, but their use in such oils has not been previously reported. This study investigated the effect of GTE (160 ppm, 400 ppm, 1000 ppm) and α-tocopherol (80 ppm, 200 ppm, 500 ppm) on the oxidative stability of a DHAO over a 9-week storage at 30 °C. The oxidative status was monitored during storage by the measurement of peroxide value (PV) and p-anisidine value (p-AV). Changes in eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and DHA content, as well as in catechins and tocopherol contents, were also evaluated. The addition of GTE enhanced the oxidative stability of DHAO by reducing the formation of peroxides and secondary oxidation products, whereas α-tocopherol had no significant effect on the PV of oil during storage but led to a significantly higher p-AV. The EPA and DHA content of DHAO was stable in GTE-supplemented samples whereas a decrease was observed in the control and α-tocopherol-supplemented samples. GTE also delayed the degradation of tocopherols initially present in the oil, while catechins resulting from the addition of GTE decreased progressively during the storage period.

This study aimed to evaluate the physicochemical properties and storage stability of microencapsulated DHA-rich oil spray dried with different wall materials: model 1 (modified starch, gum arabic, and maltodextrin), model 2 (soy protein isolate, gum arabic, and maltodextrin), and model 3 (casein, glucose, and lactose). The results indicated that model 3 exhibited the highest microencapsulation efficiency (98.66 %) and emulsion stability (>99 %), with a moisture content and mean particle size of 1.663 % and 14.173 μm, respectively. Differential scanning calorimetry analysis indicated that the Tm of DHA-rich oil microcapsules was high, suggesting that the entire structure of the microcapsules remained stable during thermal processing. A thermogravimetric analysis curve showed that the product lost 5 % of its weight at 172 °C and the wall material started to degrade at 236 °C. The peroxide value of microencapsulated DHA-rich oil remained at one ninth after accelerated oxidation at 45 °C for 8 weeks to that of the unencapsulated DHA-rich oil, thus revealing the promising oxidation stability of DHA-rich oil in microcapsules.

Commercial DHA-rich algal oil has some issues, such as an unpleasant odor and susceptibility to oxidation. The main fishy odor compounds in commercial DHA-rich algal oil powder and DHA-rich algal oil microcapsules are hexanal and (E, E)-2,4-heptadienal. To address this issue, a microencapsulation process was designed for DHA-rich algal oil using infant rice powder (IRP), maltodextrin (MD), and whey protein concentrate (WPC) as wall materials, with sodium starch octenyl succinate (SSOS) and monoacylglycerol (MAC) as emulsifiers. The spray-drying method was used for microencapsulation. The experimental data showed that microcapsules with wall materials in a ratio of IRP/MD/WPC = 1:3:1 and an emulsifier content of 3.5% (SSOS and MAC) had the highest encapsulation efficiency (85.20 ± 6.03%) and the lowest aldehyde content (65.38 ± 3.23%). This microcapsule showed a good appearance and better oxidation stability compared with the crude oil, with a water content and average particle size of 1.69 ± 0.57% and 631.60 ± 23.19 nm, respectively. The results indicated that DHA-rich algal oil microcapsules prepared with infant rice powder had a lower fishy odor and better sensory acceptability compared to commercial DHA-rich algal oil powder.

This chapter contains section titled: Introduction Interactions Between Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (Pufas Food Sources of Dha Health Benefits of Dha Conclusion References