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Abstract Precambrian greenstone belts are prospective terrains for orogenic Au deposits worldwide, but the sources of Au, base metals, metalloids, and ligands enriched within the deposits are still debated. Metamorphic devolatilization is a key mechanism for generating Au-rich hydrothermal fluids, but the respective role of the metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks present within these belts in releasing ore-forming elements is still not fully understood. The Central Lapland Greenstone Belt (CLGB), Finland, one of the largest Paleoproterozoic greenstone belts, hosts numerous orogenic Au deposits and is composed of variably metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rocks. Characterization of element behavior during prograde metamorphism highlights that (1) metavolcanic rocks release significant Au, As, Sn, Te, and possibly S; (2) metasedimentary rocks release significant S, C, Cu, As, Se, Mo, Sn, Sb, Te, and U, but limited Au; and (3) metakomatiite releases C and possibly Au. Throughout the CLGB metamorphic evolution, two main stages are identified for metal mobilization: (1) prograde metamorphism at ~ 1.92–1.86 Ga, promoting the formation of typical orogenic Au deposits and (2) late orogenic evolution between ~ 1.83 and 1.76 Ga, promoting the formation of both typical and atypical orogenic Au deposits. The complex lithologic diversity, tectonic evolution, and metamorphic history of the CLGB highlight that metal mobilization can occur at different stages of an orogenic cycle and from different sources, stressing the necessity to consider the complete dynamic and long-lasting evolution of orogenic belts when investigating the source of Au, ligands, metals, and metalloids in orogenic Au deposits.

Many workers accept a metamorphic model for orogenic gold ore formation, where a gold-bearing aqueous-carbonic fluid is an inherent product of devolatilization across the greenschist-amphibolite boundary with the majority of deposits formed within the seismogenic zone at depths of 6–12 km. Fertile oceanic rocks that source fluid and metal may be heated through varied tectonic scenarios affecting the deforming upper crust (≤ 20–25 km depth). Less commonly, oceanic cover and crust on a downgoing slab may release an aqueous-carbonic metamorphic fluid at depths of 25–50 km that travels up-dip along a sealed plate boundary until intersecting near-vertical structures that facilitate fluid migration and gold deposition in an upper crustal environment. Nevertheless, numerous world-class orogenic gold deposits are alternatively argued to be products of magmatic-hydrothermal processes based upon equivocal geochemical and mineralogical data or simply a spatial association with an exposed or hypothesized intrusion. Oxidized intrusions may form gold-bearing porphyry and epithermal ores in the upper 3–4 km of the crust, but their ability to form economic gold resources at mesozonal (≈ 6–12 km) and hypozonal (≈ > 12 km) depths is limited. Although volatile saturation may be reached in magmatic systems at depths as deep as 10–15 km, such saturation doesn’t indicate magmatic-hydrothermal fluid release. Volatiles typically will be channeled upward in magma and mush to brittle apical roof zones at epizonal levels (≈ < 6 km) before large pressure gradients are reached to rapidly release a focused fluid. Furthermore, gold and sulfur solubility relationships favor relatively shallow formation of magmatic-hydrothermal gold systems; although aqueous-carbonic fluid release from a magmatic system below 6 km would generally be diffuse, even if in cases where it was somehow better focused, it is unlikely to contain substantial gold. Where reduced intrusions form through assimilation of carbonaceous crustal material, subsequent high fluid pressures and hydrofracturing have been shown to lead to development of sheeted veins and greisens at depths of 3–6 km. These products of reduced magmatic-hydrothermal systems, however, typically form Sn and or W ores, with economic low grade gold occurrences (< 1 g/t Au) being formed in rare cases. Thus, whereas most moderate- to high-T orogens host orogenic gold and intrusions, there is no genetic association.

The term orogenic gold deposits has been widely accepted, but there has been continuing debate on their genesis. Early syn-sedimentary or syn-volcanic models and hydrothermal meteoric-fluid models are now invalid. Magmatic-hydrothermal models fail because of the lack of consistent spatially associated granitic intrusions and inconsistent temporal relationships. The most plausible models involve metamorphic fluids, but the source of these fluids is equivocal. Intra-basin sources within deeper segments of the hosting supracrustal successions, the underlying continental crust, subducted oceanic lithosphere with its overlying sediment wedge, and metasomatized lithosphere are all potential sources. Several features of Precambrian orogenic gold deposits are inconsistent with derivation from a continental metamorphic-fluid source. These include the presence of hypozonal deposits in amphibolite-facies domains, their anomalous multiple sulfur isotopic compositions, and problems of derivation of gold-related elements from devolatilization of dominant basalts in the sequences. The Phanerozoic deposits are largely described as hosted in greenschist-facies domains, consistent with supracrustal devolatilization models. A notable exception is the Jiaodong gold deposits of China, where ca. 120-Ma gold deposits are hosted in Precambrian crust that was metamorphosed over 2000 million years prior to gold mineralization. Other deposits in China are comparable to those in the Massif Central and elsewhere in France, in that they are hosted in amphibolite-facies domains or clearly post-date regional metamorphic events imposed on hosting supracrustal sequences. If all orogenic gold deposits have a common genesis, the only realistic source of fluid and gold is from devolatilization of a subducted oceanic slab with its overlying gold-bearing sulfide-rich sedimentary package, or the associated metasomatized mantle wedge, with CO2 released during decarbonation and S- and ore-related elements released from transformation of pyrite to pyrrhotite at about 500 °C. Although this model satisfies all geological, geochronological, isotopic, and geochemical constraints, and is consistent with limited computer-based modeling of fluid release from subduction zones, the precise mechanisms of fluid flux are model-driven and remain uncertain. From an exploration viewpoint, the model re-emphasizes the ubiquitous occurrence of orogenic gold deposits in subduction-related orogenic belts and importance of continental-scale lithosphere-tapping fault and shear zones to focus large volumes of auriferous fluid. It confirms the importance of the consistent spacing between world-class deposits, broadly equivalent to the depth of the Moho, as derived from empirical observations.

Computational Fluid Dynamics has been used for optimisation of industrial applications with some level of success. The modest accuracy provided by some of the combustion models in use has left some room for research and improvement. Coal is presented as a fuel with complex chemical properties due to its fossil fuel nature. The devolatilization process of coal is investigated with special attention to the best models that can handle heavy and light volatiles found in coal. The heterogenous char combustion is also presented paying attention to the nature of the char particle during the combustion process. The other processes such as drying, homogenous volatile combustion, radiation models, particle tracking models and turbulent models are investigated in a general manner as they rarely vary with the type of fuel being investigated. A summary of the industrial applications that have successfully utilised the CFD models for optimisation of coal combustion are presented thus helping in drawing the final conclusion.

Rocky planet compositions regulate planetary evolution by affecting core sizes, mantle properties, and melting behaviors. Yet, quantitative treatments of this aspect of exoplanet studies remain generally underexplored. We attempt to constrain the range of potential bulk terrestrial exoplanet compositions in the solar neighborhood (<200 pc). We circumscribe probable rocky exoplanet compositions based on a population analysis of stellar chemical abundances from the Hypatia and GALAH catalogs. We apply a devolatilization model to simulate compositions of hypothetical, terrestrial-type exoplanets in the habitable zones around Sun-like stars, considering elements O, S, Na, Si, Mg, Fe, Ni, Ca, and Al. We further apply core–mantle differentiation by assuming constant oxygen fugacity, and model the consequent mantle mineralogy with a Gibbs energy minimization algorithm. We report statistics on several compositional parameters and propose a reference set of (21) representative planet compositions for use as end-member compositions in imminent modeling and experimental studies. We find a strong correlation between stellar Fe/Mg and metallic-core sizes, which can vary from 18 to 35 wt%. Furthermore, stellar Mg/Si gives a first-order indication of mantle mineralogy, with high-Mg/Si stars leading to weaker, ferropericlase-rich mantles, and low-Mg/Si stars leading to mechanically stronger mantles. The element Na, which modulates crustal buoyancy and mantle clinopyroxene fraction, is affected by devolatilization the most. While we find that planetary mantles mostly consist of Fe/Mg silicates, the core sizes and relative abundances of common minerals can nevertheless vary significantly among exoplanets. These differences likely lead to different evolutionary pathways among rocky exoplanets in the solar neighborhood.

Most magmatism occurring on Earth is conventionally attributed to passive mantle upwelling at mid-ocean ridges, to slab devolatilization at subduction zones, or to mantle plumes. However, the widespread Cenozoic intraplate volcanism in northeast China 1 – 3 and the young petit-spot volcanoes 4 – 7 offshore of the Japan Trench cannot readily be associated with any of these mechanisms. In addition, the mantle beneath these types of volcanism is characterized by zones of anomalously low seismic velocity above and below the transition zone 8 – 12 (a mantle level located at depths between 410 and 660 kilometres). A comprehensive interpretation of these phenomena is lacking. Here we show that most (or possibly all) of the intraplate and petit-spot volcanism and low-velocity zones around the Japanese subduction zone can be explained by the Cenozoic interaction of the subducting Pacific slab with a hydrous mantle transition zone. Numerical modelling indicates that 0.2 to 0.3 weight per cent of water dissolved in mantle minerals that are driven out from the transition zone in response to subduction and retreat of a tectonic plate is sufficient to reproduce the observations. This suggests that a critical amount of water may have accumulated in the transition zone around this subduction zone, as well as in others of the Tethyan tectonic belt 13 that are characterized by intraplate or petit-spot volcanism and low-velocity zones in the underlying mantle. The widespread intraplate volcanism in northeast China and the unusual ‘petit-spot’ volcanoes offshore Japan could have resulted from the interaction of the subducting Pacific slab with a hydrous mantle transition zone.

Concealed deep beneath the oceans is a carbon conveyor belt, propelled by plate tectonics. Our understanding of its modern functioning is underpinned by direct observations, but its variability through time has been poorly quantified. Here we reconstruct oceanic plate carbon reservoirs and track the fate of subducted carbon using thermodynamic modelling. In the Mesozoic era, 250 to 66 million years ago, plate tectonic processes had a pivotal role in driving climate change. Triassic–Jurassic period cooling correlates with a reduction in solid Earth outgassing, whereas Cretaceous period greenhouse conditions can be linked to a doubling in outgassing, driven by high-speed plate tectonics. The associated ‘carbon subduction superflux’ into the subcontinental mantle may have sparked North American diamond formation. In the Cenozoic era, continental collisions slowed seafloor spreading, reducing tectonically driven outgassing, while deep-sea carbonate sediments emerged as the Earth’s largest carbon sink. Subduction and devolatilization of this reservoir beneath volcanic arcs led to a Cenozoic increase in carbon outgassing, surpassing mid-ocean ridges as the dominant source of carbon emissions 20 million years ago. An increase in solid Earth carbon emissions during Cenozoic cooling requires an increase in continental silicate weathering flux to draw down atmospheric carbon dioxide, challenging previous views and providing boundary conditions for future carbon cycle models. Oceanic plate carbon reservoirs are reconstructed and the fate of subducted carbon is tracked using thermodynamic modelling, challenging previous views and providing boundary conditions for future carbon cycle models.

The fate of subducted CO 2 remains the subject of widespread disagreement, with different models predicting either wholesale (up to 99%) decarbonation of the subducting slab or extremely limited carbon loss and, consequently, massive deep subduction of CO 2 . The fluid history of subducted rocks lies at the heart of this debate: rocks that experience significant infiltration by a water-bearing fluid may release orders of magnitude more CO 2 than rocks that are metamorphosed in a closed chemical system. Numerical models make a wide range of predictions regarding water mobility, and further progress has been limited by a lack of direct observations. Here we present a comprehensive field-based study of decarbonation efficiency in a subducting slab (Cyclades, Greece), and show that ~40% to ~65% of the CO 2 in subducting crust is released via metamorphic decarbonation reactions at forearc depths. This result precludes extensive deep subduction of most CO 2 and suggests that the mantle has become more depleted in carbon over geologic time. The fate of subducted CO 2 remains debated, with estimates mainly from numerical predictions varying from wholesale decarbonation of the shallow subducting slab to massive deep subduction of CO 2 . Here, the authors present field-based data and show that ~40% to ~65% of the CO 2 in subducting crust is released via metamorphic decarbonation reactions at forearc depths.

The flux balances of carbon and chlorine between subduction into the deep mantle and volcanic emissions into the atmosphere are crucial for the habitability of our planet 1 , 2 . However, pervasive loss of fluids from subducting slabs has been thought to cut off the delivery of both carbon and chlorine to the deep mantle owing to their high mobility under hydrous conditions 3 , 4 . Our new high-pressure experiments show that most carbonates (>75 wt%) in carbonate-rich crustal rocks—one of the main subducting carbon reservoirs—survive devolatilization and hydrous melting in cold and warm subduction zones, indicating that their subduction has driven the deep carbon cycle since the Mesoproterozoic. We found that KCl and NaCl, respectively, become stable phases crystallizing from hydrous carbonatite melts with low chlorine solubility in warm and hot subduction zones, resulting in the sequestration of chlorine in the solid residue in downwelling slabs. Accordingly, the subduction of carbonate-rich rocks facilitated highly effective recycling of both chlorine and carbon into the deep mantle at intermediate stages of Earth’s history and led to declining atmospheric p CO 2 and the formation of carbon-rich and chlorine-rich mantle reservoirs since the Mesoproterozoic. This period of optimal carbon and chlorine subduction may explain the ages of eclogitic diamonds and the formation of the HIMU mantle source. New experiments show that most carbonates in carbonate-rich crustal rocks survive devolatilization and hydrous melting in cold and warm subduction zones, demonstrating their role in driving the deep carbon and chlorine cycles since the Mesoproterozoic.

As part of the strive for a carbon neutral energy production, biomass combustion has been widely implemented in retrofitted coal burners. Modeling aids substantially in prediction of biomass flame behavior and thus in boiler chamber conditions. In this work, a simple model for devolatilization of biomass at conditions relevant for suspension firing is presented. It employs Arrhenius parameters in a single first order (SFOR) devolatilization reaction, where the effects of kinetics and heat transfer limitations are lumped together. In this way, a biomass particle can be modeled as a zero dimensional, isothermal particle, facilitating computational fluid dynamic calculations of boiler chambers. The zero dimensional model includes the effects of particle aspect ratio, particle density, maximum gas temperature, and particle radius. It is developed using the multivariate data analysis method, partial least squares regression, and is validated against a more rigorous semi-2D devolatilization model. The model has the capability to predict devolatilization time for conditions in the parameter ranges; radius (39–1569 μμm), density (700–1300 kg/m3), gas temperature (1300–1900 K), aspect ratio (1.01–8). Results show that the particle radius and gas phase temperature have a large influence on the devolatilization rate, and the aspect ratio has a comparatively smaller effect, which, however, cannot be neglected. The impact of aspect ratio levels off as it increases. The model is suitable for use as stand alone or as a submodel for biomass particle devolatilization in CFD models.