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In this project, 54 Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners (16 to 21 years) participated in 15 sessions in which they were asked to read and study books from a structured series of L2 reading materials. Half the students studied with relatively easy materials ('i − 1'), that is, materials rated as being below their competency level. The others studied with reading materials rated at slightly above their competency level at the outset ('i + 1'). Using a before and after design, students were retested after 15 weeks. On a test of L2 reading comprehension, means testing revealed both groups showed marked increases, but the 'i + 1' group was higher than the other group (effect size 1.1). On an assessment of reading motivation, the 'i + 1' group increased significantly, whereas the other group showed no change (effect size 1.58). We suggest that, under supporting conditions, there can be clear benefits for EFL learners to spend time mastering L2 materials above their level of competency.

Cognitive load theory was introduced in the 1980s as an instructional design theory based on several uncontroversial aspects of human cognitive architecture. Our knowledge of many of the characteristics of working memory, long-term memory and the relations between them had been well-established for many decades prior to the introduction of the theory. Curiously, this knowledge had had a limited impact on the field of instructional design with most instructional design recommendations proceeding as though working memory and long-term memory did not exist. In contrast, cognitive load theory emphasised that all novel information first is processed by a capacity and duration limited working memory and then stored in an unlimited long-term memory for later use. Once information is stored in long-term memory, the capacity and duration limits of working memory disappear transforming our ability to function. By the late 1990s, sufficient data had been collected using the theory to warrant an extended analysis resulting in the publication of Sweller et al. {Educational Psychology Review, 10, 251-296, 1998). Extensive further theoretical and empirical work have been carried out since that time and this paper is an attempt to summarise the last 20 years of cognitive load theory and to sketch directions for future research.

Considering the vital role of comprehensible input, this study attempted to compare the effects of input with various difficulty levels on Iranian EFL learners’ reading comprehension and reading motivation. To fulfil this objective, 54 Iranian pre-intermediate EFL learners were selected from two intact classes ( n  = 27 each). The selected participants were randomly assigned to two equal groups, namely “i + 1″ (n = 27) and “i-1″ group (n = 27). Then, the groups were pretested by a researcher-made reading comprehension test. After carrying out the pre-test, the treatment (i.e., extensive reading at different levels of difficulty) was practiced on the both groups. The participants in “i + 1″ group received reading passages beyond the current level, on the other hand, the “i-1″ group received those reading passages which were below their current level. After the instruction ended, a modified version of pre-test was conducted as posttest to determine the impacts of the treatment on the students’ reading comprehension. The obtained results indicated that there was a significant difference between the post-tests of “i + 1″ and “i-1″ groups. The findings showed that the “i + 1″ group significantly outperformed the “i-1″ group ( p  < .05) on the post-test. Moreover, the findings indicated that “i + 1″ group’s motivation increased after the treatment. The implications of the study suggest that interactive type of input is beneficial to develop students’ language skills.

Cognitive load theory provides instructional recommendations based on our knowledge of human cognition. Evolutionary psychology is used to assume that knowledge should be divided into biologically primary information that we have specifically evolved to acquire and biologically secondary information that we have not specifically evolved to acquire. Primary knowledge frequently consists of generic-cognitive skills that are important to human survival and cannot be taught because they are acquired unconsciously while secondary knowledge is usually domain-specific in nature and requires explicit instruction in education and training contexts. Secondary knowledge is first processed by a limited capacity, limited duration working memory before being permanently stored in long-term memory from where unlimited amounts of information can be transferred back to working memory to govern action appropriate for the environment. The theory uses this cognitive architecture to design instructional procedures largely relevant to complex information that requires a reduction in working memory load. Many of those instructional procedures can be most readily used with the assistance of educational technology.

Simulation-based learning offers a wide range of opportunities to practice complex skills in higher education and to implement different types of scaffolding to facilitate effective learning. This meta-analysis includes 145 empirical studies and investigates the effectiveness of different scaffolding types and technology in simulation-based learning environments to facilitate complex skills. The simulations had a large positive overall effect: g = 0.85, SE = 0.08; CIs [0.69, 1.02]. Technology use and scaffolding had positive effects on learning. Learners with high prior knowledge benefited more from reflection phases; learners with low prior knowledge learned better when supported by examples. Findings were robust across different higher education domains (e.g., medical and teacher education, management). We conclude that (1) simulations are among the most effective means to facilitate learning of complex skills across domains and (2) different scaffolding types can facilitate simulation-based learning during different phases of the development of knowledge and skills. (ZPID).

Cognitive load theory has been a major influence for the field of educational psychology. One of the main guidelines of the theory is that extraneous cognitive load should be reduced to leave sufficient cognitive resources for the actual learning to take place. In recent years, research regarding various design factors, in particular from the field of digital and online learning, have challenged this assumption. Interactive learning media, immersion, disfluency, realism, and redundant elements constitute five major challenges, since these design factors have been shown to induce task-irrelevant cognitive load, i.e., extraneous load, while still promoting motivation and learning. However, currently there is no unified approach to integrate such effects into cognitive load theory. By including aspects of constructive alignment, an approach aimed at fostering deep forms of learning in order to achieve specific learning outcomes, we devise a strategy to balance cognitive load in digital learning. Most importantly, we suggest considering both the positive and negative effects on cognitive load that certain design factors of digital learning can cause. In addition, a number of research results highlight that some types of positive effects of digital learning can only be detected using a suitable assessment method. This strategy of aligning cognitive load with desired learning outcomes will be useful for formulating theory-guided and empirically testable hypotheses, but can be particularly helpful for practitioners to embrace emerging technologies while minimizing potential extraneous drawbacks.

Educational researchers have been confronted with a multitude of definitions of task complexity and a lack of consensus on how to measure it. Using a cognitive load theory-based perspective, we argue that the task complexity that learners experience is based on element interactivity. Element interactivity can be determined by simultaneously considering the structure of the information being processed and the knowledge held in long-term memory of the person processing the information. Although the structure of information in a learning task can easily be quantified by counting the number of interacting information elements, knowledge held in long-term memory can only be estimated using teacher judgment or knowledge tests. In this paper, we describe the different perspectives on task complexity and present some concrete examples from cognitive load research on how to estimate the levels of element interactivity determining intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load. The theoretical and practical implications of the cognitive load perspective of task complexity for instructional design are discussed.

Universities around the world are incorporating online learning, often relying on videos (asynchronous multimedia). We systematically reviewed the effects of video on learning in higher education. We searched five databases using 27 keywords to find randomized trials that measured the learning effects of video among college students. We conducted full-text screening, data extraction, and risk of bias in duplicate. We calculated pooled effect sizes using multilevel random-effects meta-analysis. Searches retrieved 9,677 unique records. After screening 329 full texts, 105 met inclusion criteria, with a pooled sample of 7,776 students. Swapping video for existing teaching methods led to small improvements in student learning (g = 0.28). Adding video to existing teaching led to strong learning benefits (g = 0.80). Although results may be subject to some experimental and publication biases, they suggest that videos are unlikely to be detrimental and usually improve student learning. [Author abstract]

This study investigated the effects of different text difficulty levels on Iranian EFL learners’ foreign language reading motivation and reading comprehension. To fulfil this objective, 40 Iranian participants were selected among 50 students based on the results of Interchange Placement Test (Richards et al, Placement and Evaluation Package Interchange Third Edition/Passages Second Edition with Audio CDs, 2008). The pre-intermediate selected participants were then randomly divided into two equal groups; “i + 1” group ( n  = 20) and “i-1” group ( n  = 20). Afterwards, the researchers measured the participants’ English reading comprehension by administering a researchers-made reading comprehension pre-test. Moreover, Motivation for Reading Questionnaire was also conducted. After the participants were all pre-tested, the treatment was practiced on the both groups. The participants in “i + 1” group received reading passages beyond the current level, on the other hand, the “i-1” group received those reading passages which were below their current level. After the instruction which lasted about 3 months, a modified version of reading comprehension pre-test was administered to the both groups as posttest and finally the data were analyzed by using paired and independent samples t-tests. Moreover, Students’ answers to the questionnaire was also analyzed. The obtained results indicated that there was a significant difference between the post-tests of “i + 1” and “i-1” groups. The findings indicated that the “i + 1” group significantly outperformed the “i-1” group ( p  < .05) on the post-test. Furthermore, the results revealed that the ‘i + 1’ materials could help Iranian EFL learners increase their reading English motivation. This study has implications for teaching and learning reading comprehension.

Recently, researchers have expressed their growing concern over the scrutiny of language test items in light of cognitive load theory (CLT). While cognitive load has been central to language learning research, it has not enjoyed due attention in high-stakes language tests. The current study set out to delve into the relationship between difficulty estimates and cognitive load of language test items. To measure cognitive load, examinees’ perceived level of difficulty and response time were considered. In this regard, empirical data were collected from 60 MA students and graduates through a quantitative correlational design. The current study further employed the Rasch model to estimate difficulties of the vocabulary and grammar items of the Iranian university entrance examination (IUEE) for MA in English majors held in 2018 and 2019. The study’s findings revealed statistically significant correlations between difficulty estimates and perceived level of difficulty for vocabulary items. As for grammar items, no statistically significant correlations were detected between the variables. Whereas the results indicated strong positive correlations between response time and difficulty estimates regarding vocabulary items, no statistically significant correlations were observed between the variables concerning grammar items. All in all, perceived level of difficulty, response time, and difficulty estimates appeared to be sound indicators of cognitive load with respect to vocabulary test items, but not with regard to grammar test items. The implications of the findings will be discussed.