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In recent years, natural polysaccharides have received growing attention and interest in view of their values in food, medical, cosmetics and other fields. Eleutherococcus senticosus ( E. senticosus ) is a medicine and food homologous plant that possess anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, central nervous system and cardiovascular protection, anti-radiation, enhancement of human microcirculation, improvement of physical fatigue effects, mainly based on lignans, flavonoids and coumarin types. E. senticosus polysaccharides (ESPS), act as a kind of polysaccharide extracted and isolated from the root and rhizome of E. senticosus , have been found in many applications of medicine and food for their unique biological activity. Nevertheless, the existing studies are mostly concerned with small molecules of E. senticosus , less attention is paid to polysaccharides. Moreover, the types and structural characterization of ESPS reported in existing literature were also not summarized. In this paper, the research progress of ESPS is reviewed from the aspects of extraction, separation, structural characterization and biological activity, future perspectives from points of efficient extraction, resource utilization and quality control standards were also proposed, which provide reference for the further development and utilization of ESPS.

Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim. leaves (ESL) have long been people’s favorite as a natural edible green vegetable, in which phenols and saponins are the main characteristic and bioactive components. This study was first carried out to comprehensively analyze the phenols and saponins in ESL, including phytochemical, qualitative, quantitative, and bioactivity analysis. The results showed that 30 compounds, including 20 phenolic compounds and 7 saponins, were identified. Twelve of them were isolated from Eleutherococcus Maxim. for the first time. In the qualitative analysis, 30 phenolic compounds and 28 saponins were accurately detected. Their characteristic cleavage processes were described by UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS. Ten representative ingredients were quantitated in 29 different regions via a 4000 QTRAP triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer (UPLC-QTRAP-MS/MS), and it was found that S19 (69.89 ± 1.098 mg/g) and S1 (74.28 ± 0.733 mg/g) had the highest contents of total phenols and saponins, respectively. The newly developed analysis method for the quantitative determination was validated for linearity, precision, and limits of detection and quantification, which could be applied to the quality assessment of ESL. In vitro experiment, the α -glucosidase inhibitory effect of the phenolic fraction was higher than others, indicating that the phenolic content may be related to the hypoglycemic activity. It was also suggested that ESL could be developed as a natural potential effective drug or functional food.

This study aimed to investigate the promoting mechanisms of Bacillus proteolyticus (B. proteolyticus) on Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. and Maxim.) Maxim. (therm E. senticosus) root development. Using therm E. senticosus seeds as experimental material, soil was drenched with B. proteolyticus suspensions at different concentrations v/v (water, 25%; 50%; 75%, and 100%). The results showed that the germination rate, root tip number (52 ± 2.97), total root length (23.7 ± 0.46 cm), and total root volume (57.36 ± 1.64 mm3) exhibited an initial increase, then a decrease after B. proteolyticus treatment (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis (PCA) indicated that the soil of B. proteolyticus at a 50% concentration was conducive to seed germination. Compared with CK, GC-MS analysis revealed that 16 differential primary metabolites were screened, primarily enriched in galactose metabolism, starch and sucrose metabolism, and TCA cycle pathways after 50% B. proteolyticus treatment. LC-MS analysis revealed that the contents of six main medicinal components were higher than those of CK, with the content of eleutheroside E being 2.62 times greater. In rhizosphere soil, the contents of NO3−-N and NH4+-N were promoted, and the abundance of Gemmatimonadetes was increased in bacterial communities. Correlation analysis revealed significant correlations between the abundance of Gemmatimonadetes and the contents of NO3−-N and NH4+-N, as well as between total root length and D-galactose content, suggesting that these relationships may contribute to the root growth. Therefore, the soil of B. proteolyticus at a 50% concentration could enhance both the biomass and medicinal value of cultivated therm E. senticosus. This study provided novel insight that B. proteolyticus would be expected to be developed as an effective microbial preparation, offering a sustainable strategy for its agricultural production.

We previously found that the water extract of Eleutherococcus senticosus leaves (ES extract) enhanced cognitive function in normal mice. Our study also revealed that the water extract of rhizomes of Drynaria fortunei (DR extract) enhanced memory function in Alzheimer’s disease model mice. In addition, our previous experiments suggested that a combined treatment of ES and DR extracts synergistically improved memory and anti-stress response in mice. Although those two botanical extracts are expected to be beneficial for neuropsychological function, no clinical data has ever been reported. Therefore, we performed a placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind study to evaluate cognitive enhancement and anti-stress effects by the intake of a combined extract in healthy volunteers. The intake period was 12 weeks. The Japanese version of the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS) test was used for neurocognitive assessment. The combined treatment of ES and DR extracts significantly increased the figure recall subscore of RBANS (p = 0.045) in an intergroup comparison. Potentiation of language domain ((p = 0.040), semantic fluency (p = 0.021) and figure recall (p = 0.052) was shown by the extracts (in intragroup comparison). In anti-stress response, the anxiety/uncertainly score was improved by the extract in an intragroup comparison (p = 0.022). No adverse effects were observed. The combined treatment of ES and DR extracts appear to safely enhance a part of cognitive function in healthy adults.

Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim. fruits (ESF), as a natural edible fruit, has long been popularized. However, few studies have conducted comprehensive chemical analyses of it. This study aimed to assess nonvolatile, volatile, and fatty oil components of ESF and to preliminarily explore the antioxidant activities. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of volatile and fatty oil components of ESF from 15 different regions were performed by the gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS). Totally, 37 and 28 compounds were identified from volatile oil and fatty oil, respectively. The ultra‐high‐performance liquid chromatography–quadrupole time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry (UPLC–QTOF–MS/MS) was used to accurately detect 43 compounds of nonvolatile components. The volatile and fatty oil components and nonvolatile components of ESF were used as samples to determine the antioxidant activity of 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in vitro. The components of ESF had antioxidant activity, and the nonvolatile components had stronger antioxidant activity. The results revealed that the proposed method, which is of great significance for the screening of new active ingredients, is valuable for the identification of pharmaceutical component and further development of food industry. UPLC–QTOF–MS/MS and UNIFI were used to identify 43 nonvolatile components of ESF. GC–MS and NIST14.L identified 65 volatile components in ESF from different areas. The antioxidant effects of ESF volatile components in vitro were investigated.

Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of a tincture from the roots of Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim. (taiga root tincture) when used as a sensory additive in feed for dogs, cats and horses. The Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP) concluded that the additive is safe for dogs, cats and horses at the maximum proposed use level of 460.7, 489.5 and 140.7 mg/kg complete feed, respectively. The additive was considered safe for consumers when used at the proposed conditions of use in horses for meat production. The additive under assessment should be considered as irritant to skin and eyes, and as a skin and respiratory sensitiser. The use of the taiga root tincture as a flavour in feed for horses was not expected to pose a risk for the environment. Since the root of E. senticosus has flavouring properties and its function in feed would be essentially the same as that in food, no further demonstration of efficacy is considered necessary for the tincture under assessment.

Adaptogens are synthetic compounds (bromantane, levamisole, aphobazole, bemethyl, etc.) or plant extracts that have the ability to enhance the body’s stability against physical loads without increasing oxygen consumption. Extracts from Panax ginseng, Eleutherococcus senticosus, Rhaponticum carthamoides, Rhodiola rosea, and Schisandra chinensis are considered to be naturally occurring adaptogens and, in particular, plant adaptogens. The aim of this study is to evaluate the use of plant adaptogens in the past and now, as well as to outline the prospects of their future applications. The use of natural adaptogens by humans has a rich history—they are used in recovery from illness, physical weakness, memory impairment, and other conditions. About 50 years ago, plant adaptogens were first used in professional sports due to their high potential to increase the body’s resistance to stress and to improve physical endurance. Although now many people take plant adaptogens, the clinical trials on human are limited. The data from the meta-analysis showed that plant adaptogens could provide a number of benefits in the treatment of chronic fatigue, cognitive impairment, and immune protection. In the future, there is great potential to register medicinal products that contain plant adaptogens for therapeutic purposes.

Introduction: Adaptogens are a group of plants that exhibit complex, nonspecific effects on the human body, increasing its ability to adapt, develop resilience, and survive in stress conditions. They are found in many traditional medicinal systems and play a key role in restoring the body’s strength and stamina. Research in recent years has attempted to elucidate the mechanisms behind their pharmacological effects, but it appears that these effects are difficult to define precisely and involve multiple molecular pathways. Neuroinflammation: In recent years, chronic inflammation has been recognized as one of the common features of many central nervous system disorders (dementia and other neurodegenerative diseases, depression, anxiety, ischemic stroke, and infections). Because of the specific nature of the brain, this process is called neuroinflammation, and its suppression can result in an improvement of patients’ condition and may promote their recovery. Adaptogens as anti-inflammatory agents: As has been discovered, adaptogens display anti-inflammatory effects, which suggests that their application may be broader than previously thought. They regulate gene expression of anti- and proinflammatory cytokines (prostaglandins, leukotriens) and can modulate signaling pathways (e.g., NF-κB). Aim: This mini-review aims to present the anti-neuroinflammatory potential of the most important plants classified as adaptogens: Schisandra chinensis, Eleutherococcus senticosus, Rhodiola rosea and Withania somnifera.

Background The formation of pharmacologically active components in medicinal plants is significantly impacted by DNA methylation. However, the exact mechanisms through which DNA methylation regulates secondary metabolism remain incompletely understood. Research in model species has demonstrated that DNA methylation at the transcription factor binding site within functional gene promoters can impact the binding of transcription factors to target DNA, subsequently influencing gene expression. These findings suggest that the interaction between transcription factors and target DNA could be a significant mechanism through which DNA methylation regulates secondary metabolism in medicinal plants. Results This research conducted a comprehensive analysis of the NAC family in E. senticosus , encompassing genome-wide characterization and functional analysis. A total of 117 EsNAC genes were identified and phylogenetically divided into 15 subfamilies. Tandem duplications and chromosome segment duplications were found to be the primary replication modes of these genes. Motif 2 was identified as the core conserved motif of the genes, and the cis-acting elements, gene structures, and expression patterns of each EsNAC gene were different. Es JUB1, Es NAC047, Es NAC098, and Es NAC005 were significantly associated with the DNA methylation ratio in E. senticosus. These four genes were located in the nucleus or cytoplasm and exhibited transcriptional self-activation activity. DNA methylation in EsFPS , EsSS , and EsSE promoters significantly reduced their activity. The methyl groups added to cytosine directly hindered the binding of the promoters to Es JUB1, Es NAC047, Es NAC098, and Es NAC005 and altered the expression of EsFPS , EsSS , and EsSE genes, eventually leading to changes in saponin synthesis in E. senticosus. Conclusions NAC transcription factors that are hindered from binding by methylated DNA are found in E. senticosus . The incapacity of these NACs to bind to the promoter of the methylated saponin synthase gene leads to subsequent alterations in gene expression and saponin synthesis. This research is the initial evidence showcasing the involvement of Es NAC in governing the impact of DNA methylation on saponin production in E. senticosus .

Plant growth and development can be significantly impacted by drought stress. Plants will adjust the synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites to improve survival in times of water constraint. Simultaneously, drought stress can lead to modifications in the DNA methylation status of plants, and these modifications can directly impact gene expression and product synthesis by changing the DNA methylation status of functional genes involved in secondary metabolite synthesis. However, further research is needed to fully understand the extent to which DNA methylation modifies the content of secondary metabolites to mediate plants’ responses to drought stress, as well as the underlying mechanisms involved. Our study found that in Eleutherococcus senticosus ( E. senticosus ), moderate water deprivation significantly decreased DNA methylation levels throughout the genome and at the promoters of EsFPS , EsSS , and EsSE . Transcription factors like Es MYB-r1, previously inhibited by DNA methylation, can re-bind to the EsFPS promotor region following DNA demethylation. This process promotes gene expression and, ultimately, saponin synthesis and accumulation. The increased saponin levels in E. senticosus acted as antioxidants, enhancing the plant’s adaptability to drought stress.